A Collection of GRE Sample Essays

Issue

"The reputation of anyone who is subjected to media scrutiny will eventually be diminished."


Sample Essay

The intensity of today's media coverage has been greatly magnified by the sheer number and types of media outlets that are available today. Intense competition for the most revealing photographs and the latest information on a subject has turned even minor media events into so-called "media frenzies". Reporters are forced by the nature of the competition to pry ever deeper for an angle on a story that no one else has been able to uncover. With this type of media coverage, it does become more and more likely that anyone who is subjected to it will have his or her reputation tarnished, as no individual is perfect. Everyone makes mistakes. The advances in technology have made much information easily and instantaneously available. Technology has also made it easier to dig further than ever before into a person's past, increasing the possibility that the subject's reputation may be harmed.

The above statement is much too broad, however. "Anyone" covers all people all over the world. There are people whose reputations have only been enhanced by media scrutiny. There are also people whose reputations were already so poor that media scrutiny could not possibly diminish it any further. There may very well be people that have done nothing wrong in the past, at least that can be discovered by the media, whose reputations could not be diminished by media scrutiny. To broadly state that "anyone" subjected to media coverage will have his or her status sullied implies that everyone's reputation worldwide is susceptible to damage under any type of media scrutiny. What about children, particularly newborn children? What about those people whose past is entirely unknown?

Another problem with such a broad statement is that it does not define the particular level of media scrutiny. Certainly there are different levels of media coverage. Does merely the mention of one's name in a newspaper constitute media scrutiny? What about the coverage of a single event in someone's life, for example a wedding or the birth of a baby? Is the media coverage of the heroic death of a firefighter or police officer in the line of duty ever going to diminish that person's reputation? It seems highly unlikely that in these examples, although these people may have been subjected to media scrutiny, these individual's reputations are undamaged and potentially enhanced by such exposure.

Without a doubt, there are many examples of individual's whose reputations have been diminished by media scrutiny. The media's uncovering of former U.S. President Bill Clinton's affair with Monica Lewinsky will most likely overshadow the entire eight years of his administration. Basketball superstar Michael Jordan's sterling reputation has been tarnished more than once by the media; first by media coverage of his gambling habits, then most recently (and in a much more harmful manner) by news reports of his marital infidelities and the divorce from his wife of thirteen years. Fame and fortune can turn an ordinary individual into a media target where reporters will stop at almost nothing to "dig up dirt" that will sell more newspapers or entice more viewers to watch a television program. It could even be argued that media scrutiny killed Princess Diana as her car sped away from the privacy-invading cameras of reporters in Paris. There is no doubt that there are a large number of people who have been hurt in one way or another by particularly intense media scrutiny.

In summary, it seems impossible that for every person that is subjected to media scrutiny, his or her reputation will eventually be diminished. Millions of people are mentioned in the media every day yet still manage to go about their lives unhurt by the media. Normal individuals that are subjected to media scrutiny can have their reputation either enhanced or damaged depending on the circumstances surrounding the media coverage. The likelihood of a diminished reputation from the media rises proportionally with the level of notoriety that an individual possesses and the outrageousness of that person's behavior. The length of time in the spotlight can also be a determining factor, as the longer the person is examined in the media, the greater the possibility that damaging information will be discovered or that the individual will do something to disparage his or her reputation. But to broadly state that media scrutiny will diminish anyone's reputation is to overstate the distinct possibility that, given a long enough time and a certain level of intensity of coverage, the media may damage a person's reputation.
(766words)



觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"被置於媒體審視下的任何人，其名譽終將受毀損。"


[範文正文]

當今媒體報道的力度，由於當今時代所能獲得的媒體渠道那前所未有的數量和種類，從而被極大地增強。圍繞著對最具暴露性的圖片及對某一題材最新信息所展開的競爭，使哪怕是次要的媒體事件也轉變為所謂的"媒體瘋狂"。由於競爭的本質，記者們被迫就某一項報道作深度採訪，以其窺探到一個任何其他人都無法揭示的視角。隨著這類媒體報道的出現，任何被置於媒體報道之下的人，其名譽越來越有可能被玷污，因為"金無赤金，人無完人"。每個人都有可能犯錯誤。技術進步使大量的信息在第一瞬間便被輕易獲取。技術也使媒體得以比以往任何時候更深入地去挖掘一個人的過去，從而更增加了當事人名譽受損的可能性。

然則，上述陳述涵蓋面過於寬泛。"任何人"涵蓋了世界上所有的人。有些人的名譽反而會因為媒體的聚焦而陡然顯赫起來。也有些人，其名聲早就如此之糟糕，以致於媒體的聚焦再也無法讓它受到更壞的毀損。籠統地陳述受媒體報道的"任何人"均會使其地位被玷污，這暗示著全球每個人的名聲在任何種類的媒體聚焦下均易於遭詬病。那麼，對於天真無辜的孩子們，尤其新生嬰兒，情況會如何？對於那些其過去根本無人知曉的人來說，情況又會是什麼樣呢？

對於這樣一項籠統的陳述而言，它的另一個問題是沒能明晰界定媒體聚焦的具體程度。媒體的報道毫無疑問存在程度上的差別。只在報紙上提及一個人的名字，是否算作媒體聚焦？對某人一生中單獨一次事件（如婚禮或孩子出生）的報道這也算媒介聚焦嗎？媒體對消防隊員或警官因公而死的英雄壯舉進行報道，難道也會毀損該人的名聲嗎？在這些實例中，其名聲受損的事情極不可能發生。雖然這些人可能被置於媒體審視之下，但其名聲卻會完好無損，且潛在地可因這些披露而得以提高。 毫無疑問，也有許多例子能證明一個人的名聲會被媒體審視所毀損。媒體對美國前總統Bill Clinton與Monica Lewinsky的風流韻事的揭露極有可能會將其八年的執政生涯置於陰影之中。超級籃球明星Michael Jordan一世英名也被媒體不止一次地玷污，首先是被有關其賭習的媒體報道，其次是最近--且以一種更具致命性傷害的方式--被有關他婚姻不忠以及與其結婚13年的妻子分道揚鑣的報道。當媒體記者不擇手段去挖掘某些可促使其報紙銷量大增的"猛料"時，或去誘惑更多的觀眾觀看某一電視節目時，名和利就會將一個普通人轉變為媒體追蹤的目標。我們甚至可以提出這樣一種論點，即正是媒體的審視將Diana王妃置於死地，隨著她的汽車去竭力逃脫巴黎街頭的記者們那侵犯隱私的相機鏡頭。毫無疑問，肯定有許多人被極其強烈的媒體聚焦以一種方式或另一種方式所傷害。

歸納而言，對於每個被置於媒體審視的人來說，其名聲將最終受到毀損似乎並不可能。每天，有數百萬人被媒體提到，但他們仍設法我行我素，不為媒體所傷害。被置於媒體審視之下的普通人，其名聲或可得到提高，或可蒙受毀損，取決於圍繞著媒體報道的具體情況。一個人的名聲受媒體毀損的可能性，與所其擁有的臭名昭著的程度，及其行為的令人厭惡程度成正比。受媒體關注的時間長短同樣也是一個決定性因素，因為一個人被媒體審視的時間越長，於他名聲不利的信息越有可能被抖落出來，或者該人越有可能去做出某些於其名聲不利的事情。但只是籠統地陳述媒體的審視終將毀掉一個人的名聲，即是過分誇大這樣一種顯著的可能性，即在足夠長的時間和一度程度的報道力度這兩個條件下，媒體是有可能毀掉一個人的名聲的。

Issue

"The study of history has value only to the extent that it is relevant to our daily lives."


Sample Essay

To state that the study of history is only valuable if it is relevant to our daily lives is to ignore the value that history has beyond the day-to-day activities of human beings. It would seem to be a rather shallow statement that implies that humans only live just to survive rather than planning for the futures of their children and the environment.

First of all, to study history is to look at a road map of human behavior that has led us to where we are today in the world. For example, the lessons learned during all of the past wars can make for more effective wartime leadership by avoiding mistakes made by past commanders. From the ancient Chinese author Sun Tzu's book "The Art of War", today's military commanders and even business leaders gather valuable information that allows them to operate more efficiently and effectively. The study of this type of history has a value beyond the daily lives of people. It can lead to a military victory or the success of a business that directly affects what happens in the future, including the futures of those that are possibly not even born yet.

Another example is that by studying history, parents can help to improve the lives of their children in the future. Lessons learned by generations of their ancestors before them could help show them the way to properly raise a child. What worked for others can give guidance to the parents of today and tomorrow to make sure that children are prepared for their own futures beyond their daily lives.

Additionally, the study of medical advances made throughout history can be the foundation to build upon to make the medical advances of today and tomorrow to make people live longer and healthier lives. A researcher's daily life may not be enhanced by the study of the history of the AIDS pathogen, but it could certainly bring about a profound effect on the lives of others in the future if ways to control and cure the disease are found. The study of previous research over history has led to many amazing medical discoveries. To study history only to enrich one's daily life would here again seem to be incongruous with the truth.

A further example of the value of the study of history beyond its effect on daily life is the treatment of the environment and the earth as a whole. Looking back to the past to see the various effects of various human behaviors on the environment can show valuable lessons on what can happen if proper precautions are not taken. The nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl have been studied to ensure that they do not happen again. Certainly the study of the effects of nuclear materials on humans and the environment provides value beyond that of the day-to-day life of people. The study of oil spills and their effects on the environment gives similar guidance on how to avoid or at least minimize the damage of an oil spill on the environment. The study of the disintegration of the ozone layer over the poles of the earth has given birth to new laws and regulations on certain chemicals that help to preserve this valuable part of our atmosphere. All of these examples of studying history provide value far beyond its impact on the daily lives of people.

To be certain, there are people out there that believe that only what affects them right here and right now is important. For them, the study of history might seem to be a waste of time if it does not affect their day-to-day lives. But for countless other individuals and groups, the study of history leads to improvements in activities that have an effect reaching far into the future, beyond their daily lives. The futures of mankind and the environment depend on these types of people who have enough foresight to study history to make for a better future for everyone.
(690 words)







觀點陳述型作文

[題目]

"對歷史的研究只有與我們日常生活相關才有其價值"。


[範文正文]

"史學研究只有與我們日常生活相關才有價值"這一陳述忽略了歷史在人類日常活動之外的價值。這似乎是一種甚為淺薄的論點，其言下之意是，人類生活在這個世界上只是為了得以生存下去，而不是為著其孩子和環境的未來作規劃。

首先，研究歷史即是去審視一幀人類行為的"指路圖"，讓我們明白我們何以會處於目前的狀態。例如，從過去戰爭中所吸取的全部教訓能夠通過幫助人們避免昔日指揮官們所犯的錯誤而促進更為有效的戰時領導藝術。從中國古代的《孫子兵法》一書中，今天的軍事指揮官們甚至是商界領袖們得以獲取極有價值的信息，使他們能更有效地進行戰爭或商業操控。這種歷史研究所具備的價值已超越了人們日常生活這一範疇。它所能導致的軍事勝利或商業成功可直接影響到未來所要發生的一切，包括尚未出生的人的未來。

另一個例子是通過研究歷史，父母們可以改善他們孩子在未來的生活。父輩之前的數代祖先們所學到的教訓可以向父輩們表明什麼才是撫養孩子的恰當方法。於他人有效的東西可以為當今和未來的父母們提供有益的指導，以確保孩子們可為其未來作好準備。

此外，研究歷史上所取得的醫學進步可以奠定一個基礎，為當今和未來取得醫學進步創造條件，使人們得以過上壽命更長且更為健康的生活。研究愛滋病病源體的歷史，或許並不能改善研究人員的日常生活，但它卻肯定能對其他人在未來的生活產生深遠的影響，如果控制和治療這一疾病的方法能被找到。對歷史上昔日的研究進行分析，已導致了許多令人驚喜的醫學發現。只為了豐富一個人日常生活而去研究歷史，在這裡將再一次與事實真相不符。

歷史研究的價值能超越其對日常生活的直接影響，這方面的另一個案例是人類是如何對環境及整個地球的。回顧歷史，看清各種人類行為對環境所造成的各種影響，這樣做可以向人們昭示，如果不採取恰當的防範措施，則後患無窮。發生在三英里島和切爾諾貝的核事故被研究，以便確保此類事故不再發生。就核物質對人類及環境的影響展開研究，這無疑會提供超越人們日常生活的價值。對原油泄漏及對環境影響進行研究，可以提供類似的指導，讓人們懂得如何去避免或至少是減輕原油泄漏對環境產生的後果。對地球南北兩極臭氧層遭破壞進行研究，促使人類就某些化學品制定出新的法規，從而有助於保護我們大氣層中的有價值的這一部分。所有這些研究歷史的實例所提供的價值無疑已超越了對人們日常生活所產生的影響。

當然了，社會上有些人相信，只有那些此時此地影響著他們的事情才是重要的。對他們而言，對歷史的研究如果不能夠影響到他們日常生活的話，就純粹是在浪費時間。但對於無數其他個人和群體來說，研究歷史可導致其所從事的活動的改善，這些活動所產生的影響會深入到未來，遠遠超越其日常生活。人類和環境的未來就有賴於這樣一些類型的人，他們高瞻遠矚，從歷史中獲取有益的教訓，以謀求為所有的人創造一個更為美好的未來。

Interesting. Looks pretty professionally--or at least, very well--written.  Someone I am coaching on the side would definitely find these useful. I am going to send him the link. BTW: I assume the Chinese text is translated afterwards.

  Who wrote these? By that, I mean were they written by someone specially for illustrations or just a collection of good student essays? Just like to know if you happen to know.  I came across some pretty bad sample essays a few months ago and I was blaming it on the teachers only to find that they were partially corrected student essays.

  By the way, I like the way the guy chastised about the use of the word "anyone." I did the same to some students practicing writing at the dian-dian net. I took them that was an example of "sweeping generalization."

Issue

"eople work more productively in teams than individually. Teamwork requires cooperation, which motivates people much more than individual competition does."

Sample Essay

Teamwork as a whole can naturally produce an overall greater productivity through the concept of "synergy", where the total of the whole is greater than the sum of its individual parts. But the idea that people work more productively in teams rather than as individuals is going to vary greatly between the types of teams that are organized, the end reward or motivation for both the team and the individuals, as well as the individuals themselves.

Regarding individuals, some people are born with the desire to succeed, no matter what the situation or task that they are facing. These people may evolve into the classic "Type A" personalities that work ferociously because they are driven by an internal fire that says they must always be doing something, whether individually or as part of a team. Other people may desire to be less socially involved or are very highly competitive with other people. For these people, their work is most productive as individuals, because the very idea of cooperating with other people limits their effectiveness and efficiency because they simply do not want to be a part of the team. Whether this mindset is innate or developed over time does not matter, it is merely the state of their being and neither motivation nor rewards can generate inside them the desire to work collectively as a team.

Some people are highly motivated by social interaction and the desire to work with others towards a collective effort. Obviously these individuals are at their most productive when working as part of a team. Organizational behavioral studies have shown that Asian cultures are much more likely to develop this type of collective behavior as opposed to the more individualistic behavior associated with Western cultures. It could naturally be assumed then that there may be cultural values that can determine whether people are at their most productive individually or as part of a team.

Another variable is the end reward that is involved with the task at hand. Will the rewards be greater if the team works together towards a common goal, or are the rewards more geared toward individual performance? To the extent that the individual is motivated by the end reward, obviously his or her performance inside of a team may be more or less productive with respect to the entire team, depending on how the performance is rewarded. Individual goals may interfere with the group performance. Synergies may not be achieved because the individuals are not working towards a whole "sum" but rather towards an individual reward. Productivity thus will vary for each person as a team member or as an individual depending on the degree to which that person is motivated by an individual or overall team reward.

Finally, the degree of productivity of a person will depend upon the type of team that is organized. Is the group composed of equally contributing individuals? Does the group have an outstanding leader that can motivate both the individuals and the team as a whole? From a pure productivity standpoint, the presence or absence of a charismatic and exceptional leader can make all the difference whether a person would be more productive as a part of a team or as an individual. Personality types that work well together can prove to be much more productive as part of a team than as individuals, and vice versa.

Fundamentally, measures of productivity depend greatly on the individuals themselves. The dilemma facing leaders in all areas of life is how to best assess these individuals to determine how to best harness their capabilities to reach their ultimate productive capabilities. Whether a person is more productive alone or while working in concert with others is one of the great challenges that leaders and managers must face to accomplish tasks effectively and efficiently.

　



觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"當人們以團隊的形式工作時，要比以孤軍奮戰的形式來得更加富有成效。團隊的協同工作需要相互合作，它比個人競爭更能激勵人們。"


[範文正文]

總體而言，團隊的協同工作自然能通過"增效作用"（Synergy）這一理念而帶來更高程度的整體生產效率，因為在這裡，整體大於個體相加之總和。然則，"當人們以團隊的形式工作時，要比以孤軍奮戰的形式來得更加富有成效"這一觀念註定會產生巨大差異，取決於所組織起來的團隊的類別，團隊與個人所能獲得的終極回報或激勵，以及個人本身。

關於個人，有些人天生就具有獲取成功的慾望，無論他們所面臨的情形或任務是什麼。這些人會演變為工作狂這一經典的"A類"人格，因為受到一股內心的熱火所驅使，這股熱火時刻告訴他們必須不停地"有所事事"，無論是作為個人抑或是作為團隊的一分子。另一些人則可能希望不必那麼多地介入社會，或者他們傾向於與其他人激烈競爭。對這些人而言，作為個人，他們工作起來會最富有成效，因為由於他們根本就不想成為任何團隊的一部分，與他人合作便會限制他們的效率。這一思想傾向是否與生俱有，還是隨著時間的推移而形成，這都無關緊要。這僅僅只是他們的一種生存狀態，無論是動機還是回報，都無法在其內心深處激發起作為一個團隊集體工作的慾望。

有些人，由於社會互動以及與他人協作去實現某種集體努力的慾望，而具有極強的動機。顯然，這些個人在作為團隊的一部分進行工作時，他們便會處在其最富有成效的狀態。組織行為學研究表明，亞洲文化更有可能形成此類集體性行為，與那種常和西方文化聯繫在一起的較為個人主義的行為構成對比。這樣，人們自然會認為，某些文化價值觀可以決定人們是否作為個人還是作為團隊的一部分工作起來最富有成效。

Topic

The following is a letter to the editor of an environmental magazine

"The decline in the numbers of amphibians worldwide clearly indicates the global pollution of water and air. Two studies of amphibians in Yosemite National Park in California confirm my conclusion. In 1915 there were seven species of amphibians in the park, and there were abundant numbers of each species. However, in 1992 there were only four species of amphibians observed in the park, and the numbers of each species were drastically reduced. The decline in Yosemite has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters, which began in 1920 (trout are known to eat amphibian eggs). But the introduction of trout cannot be the real reason for the Yosemite decline because it does not explain the worldwide decline."


Sample Essay

In this argument, the writer of the letter concludes that global pollution of water and air has caused a decline in the number of amphibians worldwide. To support his or her conclusion, the writer cites the results of two studies, seventy-five years apart, that purportedly show that the number of amphibians in one park in California, Yosemite National Park, have drastically declined. Additionally, the writer casts aside a given reason for the decline, stating that the introduction of trout to the park (who are known to eat amphibian eggs) does not explain the worldwide decline in the number of amphibians. This argument defies simple logic and suffers from several critical fallacies.

First of all, the argument is based on only two studies in one specific part of the world, Yosemite National Park in California. It is impossible to pinpoint a worldwide theory for the decline of amphibians based on any number of studies in only one specific location in the world - the specific varieties of amphibians, geographical conditions and other location specific variables prohibit such a sweeping generalization. One very specific location cannot be used as a model for all other locations, even within one particular country, let alone the entire world. The writer provides no evidenced whatsoever that links the Yosemite study with any purported effects anywhere else in the global environment.

Secondly, the two separate studies were done seventy-five years apart. There is no evidence that the two studies were conducted in a similar manner over the same duration of time or even over the same exact areas of Yosemite National Park, or that the exact same study methods were used. For example, perhaps the first study lasted over an entire year and was conducted by twenty-five experts in amphibious biology, resulting in the finding of seven species of amphibians in abundant numbers. By contrast, perhaps the second study was conducted over a period of one week by a lone high school student as a school science project. The writer offers no basis on which to compare the two studies, leaving it open as to whether the two are truly comparable in their breadth, scope and expertise.

Finally, the writer notes that the decline in the amphibian population has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters in 1920, but then dismisses that argument on the purely specious basis that it does not explain the worldwide decline. This part of the argument blithely dismisses the very relevant fact that trout are known to eat amphibian eggs. This attempt to "prove a negative" is the last resort of those in search of some vain attempt to prove the truth of the matter that they are asserting. It is basically impossible to "prove a negative"; this is an attempt to shift the burden of proof back on to the nonbelievers of the argument. The global environmental situation and that of Yosemite National Park are not perfectly correlated, and the fact that the trout may very well be responsible for the decline cannot simply be dismissed without further proof.

In summary, the writer fails to establish any causal relationship between global air and water pollution and the decline of amphibious life worldwide. The evidence presented is extremely weak at best and narrowly focuses on one tiny area of the globe, as well as putting forward as proof two studies about which almost nothing is known. For a stronger argument, the writer would need to directly put forth evidence associating air and water pollution with not only the decline at Yosemite but also throughout other areas of the world.

(599 words)

　


參考譯文


[題目]

下述文字摘自一封致某環保雜誌編輯的信函：

"全球兩棲動物數量的減少明顯標誌著全球性水與大氣的污染。對加利福尼亞州約塞米蒂國家公園內兩棲動物所作的兩項研究可證實我的這一結論。1915年公園內有七個物種的兩棲動物，每一物種都擁有豐富的種群數量。然而，1992年，在公園內所能觀察到的兩棲動物物種僅為四類，且每一物種的種群數量已驟然下降。約塞米蒂公園動物數量減少被歸咎於始於1920年的將鮭魚引入公園水域的做法(眾所周知，鮭魚喜食兩棲動物所產的卵)。但鮭魚的引入不可能成為約塞米蒂公園動物數量減少的真正原因，因為它無法來解釋全球範圍內的動物數量減少。"


[範文正文]

在本項論述中，信函作者的結論是，全球性水與大氣污染已致使世界範圍內兩棲動物的數量減少。為了支持其論點，作者援引了兩份時隔75年之久的研究結果，這兩份結果據稱可證明加利福尼亞州某一公園DD即約塞米蒂國家公園DD內兩棲動物的數量銳減。此外，該作者撇開了動物數量減少的一個已知原因，陳述道，將鮭魚引入公園(據稱，鮭魚喜食兩棲動物所產的卵)這一做法不足以解釋世界範圍內兩棲動物數量上的減少。這一論點有悖於簡單的邏輯，犯有一系列關鍵性的邏輯謬誤。

首先，該論點所依據的僅僅是世界上某一特定地點DD即加利福尼亞州約塞米蒂國家公園DD內的兩份研究。圍繞著兩棲動物數量減少這一問題，如果僅以世界上一個特定的地點為樣品，再多數量的研究也無法得出一種精確的、適用於全世界的理論。兩棲動物的具體種類、地理狀況以及其他因地點而特異的變數均不允許我們作出如此一概而論的總括。一個非常具體的地點不能用作一個代表所有其他地點的模型，即使在一個特定的國家內也不行，更不用說在整個世界範圍內了。信函作者沒有提供任何證據將約塞米蒂公園的研究與全球環境中任何其他一處地方的任何所宣稱的效果聯繫起來。 其次，所提及的那兩項互為獨立的研究時隔75年之久。沒有證據可證明這兩項研究是在相同的時間跨度內以相似的方式進行的，或是在約塞米蒂公園完全相同的地點進行的，或所使用的研究方法絕然相同。例如，第一項研究可能持續了整整一年之久，且是由兩棲動物生物學領域的二十五位專家共同進行的。結果是發現了七大種類數目眾多的兩棲動物。相反，第二項研究可能是一位高中生孤身一人所做的學校的一個科學課題，僅為期一個星期。信函作者沒有提供將此兩項研究進行比較的基礎，從而使兩項研究在其廣度、範圍以及專業水準方面的可比性不得而知。 最後，信函作者指出，兩棲動物種群數量的減少，已被人歸咎於1920年將鮭魚引入公園水域這一做法，但緊接著又以該論據無法解釋世界範圍內動物數量減少這一似是而非的依據將該論據予以否認。信函作者論述中的這一部分漫不經心地將一個極為相關的事實棄置不顧，即眾所周知，鮭魚喜食兩棲動物所產的卵。這種"prove a negative "的嘗試往往是這樣一類人所慣用的最後伎倆，他們竭力尋找某種徒勞的嘗試，力圖去證明他們所宣稱的事物的真理。從根本上講，"prove a negative"是不可能的。這樣一種做法是試圖將論證的負擔重新轉嫁給不相信該論據的人。全球的環境情形與約塞米蒂公園的情形並不絕然對應。鮭魚極有可能造成了兩棲動物數量減少這一事實在缺乏進一步證據的情況下是斷不能輕易予以否認的。

概括而言，信函作者沒能在全球空氣和水污染與世界範圍內兩棲生命數量減少之間建立起任何因果關係。該作者所拿出的證據充其量也是極為蒼白無力的，狹隘地將焦點集中在世界的一片極小的區域上，作為證據而援引的兩項研究幾乎不能說明任何問題。欲使其論點更具力度，信函作者尚需擺出直接的證據，將水和空氣污染不僅僅與約塞米蒂公園的兩棲動物數量減少聯繫起來，而且也與世界其他地方的動物數量減少聯繫起來。

Issue
"Colleges and universities should offer more courses on popular music, film, advertising and television because contemporary culture has much greater relevance for students than do arts and literature of the past."

Sample Essay

To the extent that contemporary culture is, by definition, current, it does have a much more immediate impact on students and people in general than do the arts and literature of the past. Contemporaneous events directly affect everyone alive at the time because they are occurring at precisely the same time as the individual's existence. But to paraphrase a famous philosopher: "Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it." To a great extent, past arts and literature shape who we are as people at least as much as, if not more than, contemporary culture does.

Everyone alive today is affected in one way or another by the events of the past. Past events have directly led to the way that the world is shaped today. The arts and literature are one of the most well-preserved and documented resources that can give us a direct link into what actually happened in the past. Consider the religious writings of the Bible, the Koran and those of Confucius, as well as those related to Buddhism, Hinduism and all other religions. These writings directly relate to, and in some cases to a great extent control, the behavior of human beings today even though most were written hundreds if not thousands of years ago. Artworks relating to these religions also have a profound effect. Consider Michelangelo's work in the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican, or the vast myriad of historic Buddhist statues throughout Asia, or the ancient Muslim mosques throughout the Middle East and Central Asia. It would be difficult to argue that contemporary culture has more relevance to today's students when compared with the relevance of these examples of past arts and literature.

At times it is difficult to determine what exactly is the difference between contemporary culture and the arts and literature of the past. Shakespeare's classic writings are continuously being adapted into current movies that are often big hits with students and the general population as a whole. Millions of people every year view classic works of art in museums all over the world. Readings of religious texts have never gone out of  with a large part of the world's population. Clashes between centuries-old cultures and religions, such as that of Western countries and Islamic extremists and that of Hindus and Muslims in India, demonstrate that the religious artifacts that could be called arts and literature of the past are very much a part of contemporary culture.

While the past can certainly not be ignored, a large part of what students must learn at university is based on contemporary culture. Most religious learning, at least of one's own religion, occurs either at home or early on in a student's education. At the university level, studies of politics, business and the computer sciences must deal in great detail with the latest advances in contemporary culture in order to remain up to date and relevant. Other subjects, such as mathematics, agriculture, and the arts and literature themselves look largely to the past for the core knowledge that is taught in these courses. The application of these lessons from the past are entirely appropriate to help put contemporary culture into some type of historical context that can help students to understand and comprehend the rapidly changing world that they are living in.

It would seem self-evident that a properly educated university student must find a balance between studying contemporary culture without neglecting the study of arts and literature of the past. The study of one is not mutually exclusive of the study of the other. The benefits of a well-rounded education come from not only knowing the state of the world as it exists today but also in knowing how the world arrived at this stage of development in the first place.


觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"學院和大學應該開設更多通俗音樂、電影、廣告和電視方面的課程，因為當代文化要比昔日的藝術和文學對於學生具有遠為密切的聯繫。"


[範文正文]

只要當代文化--依照其定義--具有當代性，它無疑比昔日的藝術和文學對學生乃至普通大眾具有一種遠為直接的影響。同時代的事件會直接影響到生活在那一時代的每一個人，因為它們的發生與這個人的生存正值同時。但這裡我們可以複述一位著名哲學家的話，"那些無法從歷史中汲取教訓者註定會重蹈覆轍"。在相當大的程度上，昔日的藝術和文學造就了我們現如今的情狀，其作用即使並不甚於當代文化，至少與當代文化相同。 生活於當今時代的每個人以一種或另一種方式深受過去事件的影響。昔日的事件直接導致了世界目前的運轉方式。藝術和文學是保存和記載得最為完善的一種資源，它們能使我們與過去實際發生過的事情直接聯繫起來。 不妨考慮一下《聖經》，《可蘭經》一類的宗教著作，孔子的著述，以及那些與佛教、印度教和所有其他宗教相關的著作。這些直接地與當今時代人們的行為相關，並在某些情形中在相當大的程度上控制著當今時代人們的行為，雖然它們大多數創作於數百年、甚至數千年之前。與這些宗教相關的藝術品同樣也產生了深遠的影響。我們不妨考慮一下梵蒂岡西斯廷教堂內米開朗琪羅的作品，或遍布亞洲的無數具有歷史性意義的佛教像，或者散布在整個中東和中亞地區的古代穆斯林清真寺。與這些過去的藝術和文學實例的相關性相比，當代文化被說成與當今學生更密切相關，這一論點是難以成立的。

有些時候，人們難以確定當代文化與過去的藝術和文學的差異究竟何在。莎士比亞的經典之作不斷地被改編成當代電影，常常能成為學生和普通大眾的大熱門。每年，全世界數百萬人在博物館觀賞古典藝術作品。宗教文本的閱讀對於世界相當大的一部分人口而言從來就不失為一種風尚。數個世紀古老的文化與宗教之間的衝突，如西方國家與伊斯蘭極端主義者之間的衝突，以及印度國內印度教徒與穆斯林教徒之間的衝突，例證著那些可被稱為昔日藝術和文學的宗教事物在很大程度上實乃當代文化的一部分。

雖然過去無疑不能被淡忘，但學生在大學中所學內容，很大一部分是基於當代文化的。大多數宗教學習，至少一個人自身的宗教的學習，或始於家庭，或始於學生受教育的早期。在大學這一層次上，對政治、商科以及計算機科學的學習，與當代文化中的最新進步深深相涉，以便使人與時俱進，與時代緊密相關。其它的學科，如數學、農業、藝術與文學，很大程度上是從過去的源泉獲取這些課程中所傳授的核心知識。這些來自過去的課程的應用完全是恰當的，有助於將當代文化置於某種歷史架構之中，去幫助學生領略和理解他們所生活於其中的那個變化迅速的世界。

有一點似乎是不證自明的，即一個受過恰當教育的大學生必須在學習當代文化與不偏廢昔日藝術和文學之間尋找到某種平衡。對兩者的學習並非互為排斥。一種綜合全面的教育，其益處不僅在於讓人知道當今世界所處的狀態，而且亦在於首先要讓人弄清世界是何以抵達目前這一發展階段的。

Topic

The following is a letter to the editor of the Atticus City newspaper

"Former Mayor Durant owes an apology to the city of Atticus. Both the damage to the River Bridge, which connects Atticus to Hartley, and the traffic problems we have long experienced on the bridge were actually caused 20 years ago by Durant. After all, he is the one who approved the construction of the bridge. If he had approved a wider and better-designed bridge, on which approximately the same amount of public money would have been spent, none of the damage or problems would have occurred. Instead, the River Bridge has deteriorated far more rapidly over the past 20 years than has the much longer Derby Bridge up the river. Even though the winters have been severe in the past several years, this is no excuse for the negligence and wastefulness of Durant."


Sample Essay

The author of this letter concludes in his or her argument that former Mayor Durant should apologize to the city of Atticus because he is at fault for damage that has occurred over a twenty-year time span to the River Bridge. The author also blames Mayor Durant for long-time traffic problems on the bridge, stating that Durant actually caused these problems twenty years before because he approved the construction of the bridge and did not approve a wider and better-designed bridge. The arguer may have a personal vendetta against Mayor Durant but the elements stated in the argument do not support such an accusation.

First of all, the author squarely places blame on Mayor Durant for the simple act of approving the construction of the bridge. There is no evidence presented that merely approving the building of the bridge had anything whatsoever to do with the damage that has occurred or the traffic problems on the bridge. It is entirely possible that Mr. Durant simply approved the idea of constructing the bridge and not the design of the bridge or the contractor that built it. Simply approving the construction of the bridge does not in and of itself cause damage to that bridge or any resulting traffic problems.

In addition, the arguer concludes that if Mayor Durant had approved a wider and better-designed bridge that there would be no damage or traffic problems, an argument for which there is no basis of proof offered. It is a well-known fact that bridges are subject to deterioration, particularly over a period of twenty years, no matter how well designed they may be. The author also fails to offer any supporting evidence to show that a more durable bridge with fewer traffic problems could have been built for approximately the same amount of public money. It seems likely that a wider bridge would have more damage problems rather than fewer, and probably would have cost more as well, whether public or private funds were used.

Furthermore, the arguer mentions that the River Bridge has deteriorated much more rapidly than the much longer Derby Bridge up the river. This groundless argument fails to take into account other possible reasons for the discrepancy in the deterioration of the two bridges such as traffic loads, location and other environmental variables. It is possible that the Derby Bridge was much more protected from the elements and rarely used by heavy truck traffic, for example. The author gives no basis for a direct comparison between the two bridges other than his or her personal opinion.

Finally, the letter writer refers to the "negligence and wastefulness" of Mayor Durant. The only action cited by the author is the approval of the bridge in the first place, which proves neither neglect nor wasting of anything. The sentence itself contains a non sequitur - firstly discussing the severe winters of the past several years, and then accusing Mr. Durant of waste and neglect. This accusation is unwarranted as well as unsupported in the author's argument.

In summary, the author simply makes groundless accusations without providing any real support for his or her argument. To make the argument convincing, the author would have to provide evidence that Mayor Durant approved a faulty bridge design or an unqualified construction company that caused the bridge's damage and traffic problems. The author should have also provided supporting details that show that the damage to the bridge is out of the ordinary and directly caused by Mayor Durant's decision to use inadequate construction materials or a poor design. Without more support, the author's point of view is unconvincing and not well reasoned.

(605 words)

　


參考譯文


[題目]

下述文字乃一封致《Atticus都市報》的信函：

"前市長Durant應向全體Atticus 市民道歉。無論是將Atticus 市和Hartley市連結起來的跨河大橋所遭到的毀壞，還是我們在大橋上長期以來所經歷的交通問題，實際上都是由Durant 市長在20年之前一手鑄成的。無論如何，是他批准了大橋的開工建設。如果他所批准建設的大橋更寬一些，設計得更精良一些，而所投入其上的公共款項大致相等的話，那麼，無論是大橋的受損，還是交通擁堵問題均不會發生。然則，在過去20年期間，跨河大橋現在則遠比上遊河段上長度遠長得多的Derby河大橋更為快速地遭到毀損。儘管過去幾年中冬天的日子甚為嚴酷，但我們絕不能原諒Durant 市長的玩忽職守和浪費。"


[範文正文]

本信函的作者在其論述中得出結論，認為前市長Durant 應向Atticus全市作出正式道歉，因為對於過去20年中跨河大橋所遭受的損壞他應引咎自責。作者亦責怪Durant市長造成了大橋上長期以來的交通問題。作者陳述道，由於Durant市長批准了現在這座大橋的開工建設，而沒有批准一座更寬、設計更精良的大橋，故他在20年之前實際上就已鑄成了上述這些問題。提出這些論點的作者可以對Durant市長有此個人怨仇，但論述中所陳述的各項內容並不能為這樣一種責怪提供依據。

首先，作者斬釘截鐵地將罪責歸咎於Durant市長，僅僅因為他批准了大橋的建造這一行為本身。但作者沒能提供證據證明，僅僅只是批准該座大橋的建造這一行為與大橋本身所遭受的毀壞或大橋上的交通問題有任何必然的聯繫。完全有可能的是，Durant先生僅僅只是准許了建造這座大橋的想法，而並沒有認可該大橋的設計或建造該大橋的承包商。純粹去批准大橋的建造，這一行為就其本身而言並不會導致大橋受毀或造成任何交通問題。

此外，論述者得出結論，認為如果Durant市長批准建造一座更寬、設計更精良的大橋的話，則既不會發生大橋受損，也不會有交通擁堵的問題。對於該論據，論述者也沒有提出任何證明依據。一個眾所周知的事實是，所有橋樑的狀況都會每況愈下，尤其是經歷了20年這樣長的時間之後，無論它們當時設計得是如何精良。信函作者也沒能提供任何能起到支持作用的證據來證明，人們可以用大致同等數量的公共款項建起一座更為持久的、交通問題更少的大橋。有可能的是，一座橋面更寬的大橋所遭受的損壞可能更多，而非更少。也有可能是，所投入的資金將更大，無論所使用的是公共款項還是私人資金。

再者，論述者提到跨河大橋比上遊河段更長的Derby大橋老化的速度來得快。這一毫無根據的論點沒能考慮到導致兩座大橋老化狀況差異的其他有可能的因素，如交通負荷、橋址、以及其他環境方面的變數。例如，Derby大橋受到了更好的保護，受自然因素影響較少，很少有重型卡車類的交通工具通過其上。除了其武斷的個人看法以外，信函作者沒有拿出任何依據來在兩座大橋之間作出直接的比較。

最後，信函作者提及Durant市長的"玩忽職守及浪費"。該作者所援引的有關Durant市長的唯一的所作所為僅是早先時候對大橋建造的批准，而這一點既不能證明任何的玩忽職守，也不能證明任何浪費。該句子本身包含了一個不根據前提的推理--首先討論過去幾年中氣候嚴酷的冬天，緊接著責怪Durant先生的浪費與疏忽。在作者的論述中，這一譴責既無正當理由，也缺乏依據。

概而言之，信函作者所做的只是提出一些毫無根據的責怪，而沒有拿出任何真正的依據來證明其論點。要使其論點更具說服力，該作者應拿出證據來證明，Durant市長所批准的是一份有嚴重失誤的大橋建設設計方案，或一個沒有資質的建築公司，從而導致了大橋的受毀和交通問題。該作者也應該提供有支持作用的細節，以表明大橋受損程度超乎尋常，並且是因為Durant市長決定使用劣質建築材料或採用了一份蹩腳的設計方案而直接造成的。在沒有更為充分的依據這一條件下，該作者的論點無法令人置信，並且也顯得沒有得到充分的論證。

The following is from an editorial in the Midvale Observer, a local newspaper.

"Ever since the 1950's, when television sets began to appear in the average home, the rate of crimes committed by teenagers in the country of Alta has steadily increased. This increase in teenage crime parallels the increase in violence shown on television. According to several national studies, even very young children who watch a great number of television shows featuring violent scenes display more violent behavior within their home environment than do children who do not watch violent shows. Furthermore, in a survey conducted by the Observer, over 90 percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime-time television--programs that are shown between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m.---should show less violence. Therefore, in order to lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta, television viewers should demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence shown during prime time."


The author of this editorial states that the rate of teenage crime in the country of Alta has increased along with the increase in violence shown on television, beginning with the 1950's when television was introduced in the average home. In addition, the author states that several national surveys have shown that young children watching violent television programs are more prone to violence than children who do not. The write also says that a survey indicated that ninety percent of parents responding said that prime-time programs should show less violence. Finally, the author comes to the conclusion that to lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta, television watchers should demand a reduction in violence shown during prime time. This argument suffers from several critical fallacies.

Firstly, the writer equates the rate of increase in teenage crime in Alta to the increase in violence shown on television but gives no causal linkage other than the similar time periods. The author makes no distinction between types of crimes - whether they are violent or nonviolent crimes by teenagers. Furthermore, there are several possible alternative causes for the increase in teen crimes. For example, perhaps all types of crimes have increased for all ages, or maybe the police are now doing a better job of catching teenage criminals than they were before. Perhaps the reason for the increase is simply an increase in the overall population and that as a percentage of the population, teen crime is even less than it was before. Without ruling out these and other causes, the argument fails to convince by showing no causal linkage between television violence and teenage crime.

Secondly, the author mentions national studies that show that young children that watch violent programs show more violent behavior at home than children who do not watch such programs. This argument fails on two levels - one by assuming that children and teenagers are equally affected by television programs; and two by again assuming that there is some type of cause and effect relationship between television violence and teenage crime. Young children and teenagers are not the same and it should not be assumed that more violent behavior within the home leads to crimes outside as these children grow into teenagers.

Thirdly, the author offers a survey showing that ninety percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime time television programs should show less violence. The survey methods are not discussed - it is possible that the sample was improperly chosen or somehow predisposed to include parents that are very much opposed to television violence. Additionally, it is possible that such parents are far more vocal in their opinions than those who care little or not at all about prime time television violence, again skewing the results of the survey. Even assuming the veracity of the sample population surveyed, it is not logical to associate television violence with teen crime solely on that basis.

Finally, the author makes the gratuitous assumption that simply having television viewers demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence during prime time will lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta. Regardless of the flawed arguments previously discussed, simply demanding a change will have no effect whatsoever on teen crime. To strengthen his or her argument, the author needs to show some direct causal linkage between television violence and teen crime rather than making vague and unsupported comparisons purporting to show a link. There is no proof given either that television violence of any kind causes teenage crime or that a reduction in prime time violence will keep teenagers from breaking the law.

(602 words)

　


參考譯文


［題目］

下述文字摘自一份地方性報紙《Midvale觀察家》所發表的社論。

"自二十世紀五十年代以來，當電視機開始出現於尋常百姓家庭時，Alta國內青少年犯罪率已呈現出持續上升的勢頭。這一青少年犯罪行為的上升與電視上所播放的暴力畫面的增加成正比。按照幾份全國性調查報告，在那些大量觀看了涉及到暴力場面的電視節目的青少年中，即使是極為年幼的孩童在其家庭環境中也要比那些不看暴力節目的孩童表現出更多的暴力行為。此外，在一項由《Midvale觀察家》所進行的調查中，有90%的受訪者為父母親，他(她)們表示黃金時段的電視內容--即晚上7點到9點所播放的節目--應該減少播放暴力內容。據此，為了降低Alta國內青少年犯罪率，電視觀眾應該要求電視節目編播者減少黃金時段所播放的暴力畫面數量。"


[範文正文]

本社論作者陳述道，Alta國內青少年犯罪率伴隨著電視所播放的暴力場面的增加而上升。這一情形始於二十世紀五十年代，因為電視在當時被引入到普通百姓的家庭。此外，該作者陳述道，幾項全國性調查顯示，觀看暴力電視節目的孩子比那些不看同類節目的孩子更易於形成暴力傾向。社論作者還指出，一份調查表明，受訪的90%的父母親認為，黃金時段的電視節目不應含有那麼多的暴力場面。最後，作者得出結論，認為要想降低Alta國內的青少年犯罪率，電視觀眾應要求減少黃金時段所播放的暴力畫面。這一論述犯有若干關鍵性的邏輯謬誤。

首先，社論作者將Alta國內青少年犯罪率的上升與電視所播放的暴力場面的增加相提並論，但除了二者在時間上吻合以外，沒能給出任何因果關係。該作者沒有對不同的犯罪種類作出區分--青少年所犯的罪行是屬於暴力型的還是非暴力型的。此外，對於青少年犯罪數量的增加，還存在著其他一些有可能的原因。例如，或許所有年齡段的所有類型的犯罪行為都呈上升態勢，或者也有可能，警察現在要比過去更擅長於抓捕青少年犯罪者了。更有可能的是，犯罪上升的原因僅僅只是人口總量的上升所致，並且，作為人口總量中的一個比例，青少年犯罪現在甚至低於以前的程度。如不排除掉這些以及其他的原因，社論中的論點便無法令人信服，因為作者沒有在電視暴力和青少年犯罪之間建立起任何因果關係。

其次，社論作者提到，有幾份全國性研究表明，觀看暴力節目的孩童在家裡比不看此類節目的孩童表現出了更多的暴力行為。這一論點在二個層面上顯得站不住腳--首先是假設孩童和青少年受到電視節目同等程度的影響；第二是又一次假定在電視暴力與青少年犯罪之間存在著某種因果關係。孩童與青少年畢竟並不相同，我們不能做這樣的假定，即家庭中較為暴力的那些行為必然會隨著這些孩子長大成為青少年而發展成為犯罪行為。

第三，社論作者給出一項調查，以期證明90%的回答問卷的受訪者均為父母親一類的人，他(她)們提出黃金時段的電視節目不應該播放如此多的暴力鏡頭。但社論中沒有討論該調查所使用的調查方法是什麼。情況有可能是，該調查的樣本選擇得並不恰當，或在某種程度上側重於只將那些對電視暴力甚感厭惡的父母親囊括於樣本之中。再則，情況也可能是，這些父母親在表達其意見時要比那些對黃金時段電視暴力漠不關心或滿不在乎的人來得語氣強烈得多，這樣便再度使調查結果失之偏頗。即使我們假定所調查的人口樣本是真實的，僅僅以此為依據將電視暴力和青少年犯罪聯繫起來也是不合邏輯的。 最後，社論作者作出一不必要的假設，即只要有電視觀眾要求電視節目編播者減少黃金時段暴力內容的播放量便可降低Alta國內的青少年犯罪率。即使不考慮此前已討論過的那些含有缺陷的論點，只是去要求作出某種改變並不會對青少年犯罪產生任何影響。若要增強其論點的邏輯性，社論作者必須在電視暴力與青少年犯罪之間表明某種直接的因果關係，而不是作出某些含糊其辭的和缺乏依據的比較，聲稱存在著某種聯繫。該作者既沒有拿出證據證明任何種類的電視暴力導致了青少年的犯罪，也沒能證明黃金時段電視暴力的減少將會防範青少年的違法亂紀行為。

The following is from an editorial in the Midvale Observer, a local newspaper.

"Ever since the 1950's, when television sets began to appear in the average home, the rate of crimes committed by teenagers in the country of Alta has steadily increased. This increase in teenage crime parallels the increase in violence shown on television. According to several national studies, even very young children who watch a great number of television shows featuring violent scenes display more violent behavior within their home environment than do children who do not watch violent shows. Furthermore, in a survey conducted by the Observer, over 90 percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime-time television--programs that are shown between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m.---should show less violence. Therefore, in order to lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta, television viewers should demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence shown during prime time."


The author of this editorial states that the rate of teenage crime in the country of Alta has increased along with the increase in violence shown on television, beginning with the 1950's when television was introduced in the average home. In addition, the author states that several national surveys have shown that young children watching violent television programs are more prone to violence than children who do not. The write also says that a survey indicated that ninety percent of parents responding said that prime-time programs should show less violence. Finally, the author comes to the conclusion that to lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta, television watchers should demand a reduction in violence shown during prime time. This argument suffers from several critical fallacies.

Firstly, the writer equates the rate of increase in teenage crime in Alta to the increase in violence shown on television but gives no causal linkage other than the similar time periods. The author makes no distinction between types of crimes - whether they are violent or nonviolent crimes by teenagers. Furthermore, there are several possible alternative causes for the increase in teen crimes. For example, perhaps all types of crimes have increased for all ages, or maybe the police are now doing a better job of catching teenage criminals than they were before. Perhaps the reason for the increase is simply an increase in the overall population and that as a percentage of the population, teen crime is even less than it was before. Without ruling out these and other causes, the argument fails to convince by showing no causal linkage between television violence and teenage crime.

Secondly, the author mentions national studies that show that young children that watch violent programs show more violent behavior at home than children who do not watch such programs. This argument fails on two levels - one by assuming that children and teenagers are equally affected by television programs; and two by again assuming that there is some type of cause and effect relationship between television violence and teenage crime. Young children and teenagers are not the same and it should not be assumed that more violent behavior within the home leads to crimes outside as these children grow into teenagers.

Thirdly, the author offers a survey showing that ninety percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime time television programs should show less violence. The survey methods are not discussed - it is possible that the sample was improperly chosen or somehow predisposed to include parents that are very much opposed to television violence. Additionally, it is possible that such parents are far more vocal in their opinions than those who care little or not at all about prime time television violence, again skewing the results of the survey. Even assuming the veracity of the sample population surveyed, it is not logical to associate television violence with teen crime solely on that basis.

Finally, the author makes the gratuitous assumption that simply having television viewers demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence during prime time will lower the rate of teenage crime in Alta. Regardless of the flawed arguments previously discussed, simply demanding a change will have no effect whatsoever on teen crime. To strengthen his or her argument, the author needs to show some direct causal linkage between television violence and teen crime rather than making vague and unsupported comparisons purporting to show a link. There is no proof given either that television violence of any kind causes teenage crime or that a reduction in prime time violence will keep teenagers from breaking the law.

(602 words)

　


參考譯文


［題目］

下述文字摘自一份地方性報紙《Midvale觀察家》所發表的社論。

"自二十世紀五十年代以來，當電視機開始出現於尋常百姓家庭時，Alta國內青少年犯罪率已呈現出持續上升的勢頭。這一青少年犯罪行為的上升與電視上所播放的暴力畫面的增加成正比。按照幾份全國性調查報告，在那些大量觀看了涉及到暴力場面的電視節目的青少年中，即使是極為年幼的孩童在其家庭環境中也要比那些不看暴力節目的孩童表現出更多的暴力行為。此外，在一項由《Midvale觀察家》所進行的調查中，有90%的受訪者為父母親，他(她)們表示黃金時段的電視內容--即晚上7點到9點所播放的節目--應該減少播放暴力內容。據此，為了降低Alta國內青少年犯罪率，電視觀眾應該要求電視節目編播者減少黃金時段所播放的暴力畫面數量。"


[範文正文]

本社論作者陳述道，Alta國內青少年犯罪率伴隨著電視所播放的暴力場面的增加而上升。這一情形始於二十世紀五十年代，因為電視在當時被引入到普通百姓的家庭。此外，該作者陳述道，幾項全國性調查顯示，觀看暴力電視節目的孩子比那些不看同類節目的孩子更易於形成暴力傾向。社論作者還指出，一份調查表明，受訪的90%的父母親認為，黃金時段的電視節目不應含有那麼多的暴力場面。最後，作者得出結論，認為要想降低Alta國內的青少年犯罪率，電視觀眾應要求減少黃金時段所播放的暴力畫面。這一論述犯有若干關鍵性的邏輯謬誤。

首先，社論作者將Alta國內青少年犯罪率的上升與電視所播放的暴力場面的增加相提並論，但除了二者在時間上吻合以外，沒能給出任何因果關係。該作者沒有對不同的犯罪種類作出區分--青少年所犯的罪行是屬於暴力型的還是非暴力型的。此外，對於青少年犯罪數量的增加，還存在著其他一些有可能的原因。例如，或許所有年齡段的所有類型的犯罪行為都呈上升態勢，或者也有可能，警察現在要比過去更擅長於抓捕青少年犯罪者了。更有可能的是，犯罪上升的原因僅僅只是人口總量的上升所致，並且，作為人口總量中的一個比例，青少年犯罪現在甚至低於以前的程度。如不排除掉這些以及其他的原因，社論中的論點便無法令人信服，因為作者沒有在電視暴力和青少年犯罪之間建立起任何因果關係。

其次，社論作者提到，有幾份全國性研究表明，觀看暴力節目的孩童在家裡比不看此類節目的孩童表現出了更多的暴力行為。這一論點在二個層面上顯得站不住腳--首先是假設孩童和青少年受到電視節目同等程度的影響；第二是又一次假定在電視暴力與青少年犯罪之間存在著某種因果關係。孩童與青少年畢竟並不相同，我們不能做這樣的假定，即家庭中較為暴力的那些行為必然會隨著這些孩子長大成為青少年而發展成為犯罪行為。

第三，社論作者給出一項調查，以期證明90%的回答問卷的受訪者均為父母親一類的人，他(她)們提出黃金時段的電視節目不應該播放如此多的暴力鏡頭。但社論中沒有討論該調查所使用的調查方法是什麼。情況有可能是，該調查的樣本選擇得並不恰當，或在某種程度上側重於只將那些對電視暴力甚感厭惡的父母親囊括於樣本之中。再則，情況也可能是，這些父母親在表達其意見時要比那些對黃金時段電視暴力漠不關心或滿不在乎的人來得語氣強烈得多，這樣便再度使調查結果失之偏頗。即使我們假定所調查的人口樣本是真實的，僅僅以此為依據將電視暴力和青少年犯罪聯繫起來也是不合邏輯的。 最後，社論作者作出一不必要的假設，即只要有電視觀眾要求電視節目編播者減少黃金時段暴力內容的播放量便可降低Alta國內的青少年犯罪率。即使不考慮此前已討論過的那些含有缺陷的論點，只是去要求作出某種改變並不會對青少年犯罪產生任何影響。若要增強其論點的邏輯性，社論作者必須在電視暴力與青少年犯罪之間表明某種直接的因果關係，而不是作出某些含糊其辭的和缺乏依據的比較，聲稱存在著某種聯繫。該作者既沒有拿出證據證明任何種類的電視暴力導致了青少年的犯罪，也沒能證明黃金時段電視暴力的減少將會防範青少年的違法亂紀行為。

Issue

"In many countries it is now possible to turn on the television and view government at work. Watching these proceedings can help people understand the issues that affect their lives. The more kinds of government proceedings - trials, debates, meetings, etc. - that are televised, the more society will benefit."


Sample Essay

Anything that makes a country's government more transparent is certainly a good thing, at least in democratic countries. These societies have a great deal to gain by being able to watch their elected government officials in action. But to broadly state that the more government proceedings that are televised, the more society will benefit is to ignore the fact that sometimes, less is more. Some types of proceedings can even be adversely affected if televised, making society worse off rather than giving it a benefit. Some types of governmental proceedings should receive more televised coverage, but there are some that should probably receive less to ensure that they are properly conducted.

One example of the possible negative effects of televising all governmental proceedings was the trial in the United States of accused murderer and former National Football League superstar O.J. Simpson. The trial was televised and became a huge media spectacle, captivating the nation's attention during the entire trial. Attorneys were well aware that the proceedings were being televised and almost behaved as if they were acting in a movie. The spotlight was so unrelenting that the circus atmosphere affected even the judge. The presence of television cameras and the effect of the intense media coverage led to a trial like no other, and adversely affected the natural progression of the trial. The participants played to the cameras rather than focusing on the task at hand. Largely because of television, many people would argue that justice was not served during this particular trial.

On the other hand, television of the day-to-day workings of government in action provides direct insight into how a government actually works. Because the television cameras are there everyday, the governmental officials become accustomed to them and are no longer greatly affected by their presence. In this way, society benefits because they are able to see what is happening as it happens. The government in action is no longer hidden behind such a veil of secrecy so that no one knows the mysterious ways of their elected officials.

One of the problems with stating that the more governmental proceedings that are televised, the better of a society is, is that people might come to believe that they are seeing everything when in fact, a television camera can only see part of what is happening no matter how many cameras there are. Much of what happens in government takes place "behind the scenes", not necessarily in full view of the cameras in the meeting place. While to an extent "seeing is believing", quite often it is what you don't see that makes the difference. Merely televising governmental proceedings certainly enhances understanding, but to fully understand the process a person would actually have to actively participate in that process.

Another problem with the statement that the more televised governmental proceedings, the better, is that it assumes that people actually watch the proceedings when they are broadcast. There is a television channel in the United States that broadcasts Congressional proceedings every day, but few people watch it. Only when some big issue comes up for a debate or for a vote does a significant number of people tune in. To merely televise governmental proceedings will not affect society unless society watches these events.

Society can certainly benefit from the television coverage of certain governmental proceedings. To actually see the elected officials in action can bring an extra element of understanding into the inner workings of a government. Politicians can be held accountable for their actions while they are being "watched" by the television cameras. No longer can they hide in anonymity while they are conducting the business of the people. But not all governmental proceedings should be televised. There are times when secrecy is an absolute requirement for making sure that the correct decisions are made.

( 694 words)


觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"在許多國家，人們現在可以打開電視，便可以看到政府是如何運作的。觀看到這樣一些程序能夠幫助人們理解那些影響到其生活的問題。電視轉播政府程序----審判，辯論，會議等不一而足----的種類越多，則社會將會獲益更多。"


[範文正文]

任何能使一個國家的政府更透明的事情無疑總是一件好事情，至少在民主國家中是如此。這些社會通過得以看到他們所選舉的政府官員在做些什麼而獲益匪淺。但是，如果只是籠統地說政府程序轉播得越多，社會就會獲益更多，那麼，這便忽視了這樣一個事實，即有些時候，轉播得越少越好。有些類型的程序如果進行轉播，則甚至會受到負面影響，使社會處於更糟糕的境地，而不是帶來任何裨益。有些類型的政府程序應獲得更多的電視報道，但有些應該減少報道，以確保這些程序能恰當地進行。

轉播所有政府程序會引發負面作用，這方面的例子是美國對所指控的謀殺者和前美式足球全國聯賽超級明星O.J.辛普遜的審判。審判全程轉播，成為媒體一大焦點，在整個審判進程中吸引了全國的注意力。律師們清楚地知道，整個審判程序被轉播，他們的所作所為幾乎像電影演戲那樣。媒體的焦光燈如此窮追不捨，以致於那種馬戲團般的氛圍甚至波及到主審法官。電視鏡頭的存在以及密集的媒體報道效果致使這場審判史無前例，嚴重影響到這次審判的正常進程。參與者在鏡頭面前裝腔作勢，根本不專註於手頭應做的工作。許多人會認為，很大程度上由於電視的緣故，在這場特定的審判中，正義並未得到申張。

另一方面，有關政府日常實際工作的電視轉播能讓人們直接地深入了解政府實際上是怎樣運轉的。由於電視鏡頭每天都在那裡，政府官員們便變得習以為常，不再會因為它們的存在而受太大的影響。這樣，社會就能獲益，因為民眾能夠親眼目睹實際所在發生的事情。工作中的政府不再像以前那樣藏匿在一層秘密的面紗背後，從而使人無從知曉所被選舉的官員的神秘行為。

被電視轉播的政府程序越多，一個社會就會變得更好，此番陳述的問題之一是，人們可能會以為他們能目睹一切，但在實際上，電視鏡頭所捕捉到的可能只是所有發生的事情的一部分，無論有多少電視鏡頭。政府內發生的相當一部分事情是在"幕後"完成的，並不必定是在開會場所眾目睽睽之下進行的。儘管在某種程度上"眼見為實"，但在相當多的時候，不為你所見的事情才起著決定性的作用。純粹去電視轉播政府的各項程序，當然能增進理解，但要充分理解某一過程，則人們須實際上積極地參與到這一過程中來。

政府程序電視轉播越多越好，這一陳述的另一個問題是，這一陳述認為當政府程序被轉播時，人們實際上正觀看著這些程序。美國有一個電視頻道，每天播放國會程序，但看這一頻道的人寥寥無幾。只有當某些重大問題需要進行辨論或進行投票時，才會有大量的人觀看這一頻道。純粹電視播放政府程序並不會影響到社會，除非社會觀看這些事件。

社會無疑能得益於電視對某些政府程序的報道。親眼目睹民選官員處理政府事務，能帶來一個額外的理解因素，來弄清政府的內在運轉機制。當政治家們被置於電視鏡頭的"注視"時，可以使其對其行為負責。他們在處理公眾事務時再也無法隱名埋姓。但政府程序並非應該全部進行電視轉播。有些時候，為了確保能作出正確的決策，隱秘應成為一種絕對的要求。

The following appeared in the editorial section of a health and fitness magazine.

"In a study of the effects of exercise on longevity, medical researchers tracked 500 middle-aged men over a 20-year period. The subjects represented a variety of occupations in several different parts of the country and responded to an annual survey in which they were asked: How often and how strenuously do you exercise? Of those who responded, the men who reported that they engaged in vigorous outdoor exercise nearly every day lived longer than the men who reported that they exercised mildly only once or twice a week. Given the clear link that this study establishes between longevity and exercise, doctors should not recommend moderate exercise to their patients but should instead encourage vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis."

It is natural to assume that exercise would have a positive effect on the length of life for middle-aged men given all of the medical literature that has been published in the past showing a positive correlation between exercise and longevity. In this particular argument, the writer puts forth a study purporting to track five hundred middle-aged men with different occupations in different parts of the country. The survey was apparently conducted on the basis of an annual survey asking how often and how strenuously these men exercised. The writer not only concludes that there is a clear link between longevity and exercise, but that doctors should not recommend moderate exercise, rather vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis to all their patients. This writer's argument fails to convince in a number of areas due to several lapses in logical thinking.

The first and most glaring error in logic lies in the fact that the results of only two types of exercising men are reported: those that exercise strenuously outdoors almost every day and those that only had mild exercise once or twice per week. There are no other results mentioned from the survey, such as the results of men who exercise vigorously indoors every day, or those that exercise moderately either indoors or outdoors three or four times per week. Additionally, it is likely that those men that are exercising outdoors vigorously and almost every day are already in better health than those men that only exercise mildly once or twice per week. Unhealthy men, either due to obesity, smoking or other health-related problems, would naturally be expected to exercise less and die sooner than those apparently healthy men who are physically able to exercise strenuously every day.

Furthermore, the writer indicates that the survey looked at men in different parts of the country with a variety of occupations. It would follow that men that can exercise vigorously outdoors almost every day must live in more favorable climates for such exercise. Milder weather that permits outdoor exercise would likely be healthier for any men rather than the harsher climates that may be present in other parts of the country. In addition, some occupations such as a policeman, firefighter or steelworker are naturally more dangerous than others, leading to a possibly reduced life span. The writer fails to take into account any possible disparity in longevity that may be caused by climatic differences where the men lived or due to their occupations, thus weakening the argument and its conclusion.

Finally, the argument suffers from a critical flaw in its conclusion when the writer states that doctors should not recommend moderate exercise for their patients, instead stating that they should only encourage vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis. This conclusion is supported by absolutely no evidence in the argument - indeed moderate exercise is not even mentioned until the end of the editorial. Additionally, the argument fails to take into account that the study only addresses men, not women or children that are also doctors' patients. Furthermore, for some men, women or children, outdoor vigorous exercise on a daily basis might actually be detrimental to their health, such as those at risk for a heart attack or living in harsh climates.

In summary, the writer fails to show that doctors should recommend vigorous daily outdoor exercise rather than moderate exercise whether it is for men, women or children. To strengthen the argument, evidence should be presented that directly links strenuous outdoor exercise on a daily basis for men as well as all doctors' patients before any such recommendation should be adopted. This weak argument might actually cause more damage to patients' health than it would prevent.

(615 words)

　


參考譯文


[題目]

下述文字刊登於某健康與健美雜誌的社論欄：

"在一項有關運動對長壽的影響的研究中，醫療研究人員在為期20年的時間中跟蹤調查了500名中年男性。被調查對象代表著該國若干個不同地區的形形色色的職業，他們對每年度調查中的二個問題--你運動的頻繁程度如何？運動的力度如何？--作出回答。在所有作出回答的人中間，那些彙報說幾乎每天都從事劇烈戶外運動的男性，其壽命要高於那些彙報說每周只從事一次或二次輕微運動的男性。鑒於本項研究在長壽與運動之間所確立的明顯關係，大夫們不應向其病人建議適度的運動，而應該鼓勵病人每天從事劇烈的戶外活動。"


[範文正文]

鑒於過去所出版的醫學文獻均表明，在運動和長壽之間存在著一種積極的關係，人們自然會認為運動會對中年男性的壽命產生一種極積的影響。在這段特定的論述中，作者引用一份研究，聲稱該研究對500名本國不同地區從事不同職業的男性進行了跟蹤調查。這份研究顯然每年進行一次問卷調查，詢問這些男性從事運動的頻繁程度以及力度如何。該作者不僅得出結論，認為長壽和運動之間存在著明顯的聯繫，而且也認為大夫不應該向病人推薦適度的運動，而應該鼓勵所有的病人每天都應進行劇烈的戶外運動。鑒於其邏輯思維中的若干差錯，該作者的論述在諸多方面無法令人信服。 邏輯推理中第一個也是最彰著的謬誤在於這樣一個事實，即研究僅報告了從事運動的二類男性的結果，第一類為幾乎每天都要去戶外做劇烈運動的男性，第二類為一星期只進行一至二次適度運動的男性。該調查中的其他結果均未提及，諸如每天在室內進行劇烈運動的男性的結果，或者那些每周三至四次在室內或在室外進行運動的男性的結果。此外，那些在室外作劇烈運動且幾乎每天都進行運動的男性，可能比那些僅每周作一至二次適度運動的人早就處在更佳的身體狀況之中。身體不夠健康的男性，或因為肥胖，或因為抽煙，或因為其他與健康相關的問題，自然不被期望去作那麼多的運動，否則，與那些顯然是身體健康的、擁有每天進行劇烈運動體能的男性相比，他們可能會死得更早。 另一方面，該作者表示，此項調查所研究的男性分佈在該國不同的地區，從事著不盡相同的職業。我們自然會得出這樣的結論，即那些能夠在戶外幾乎每天都從事劇烈運動的男性，他們必定生活在較適宜於這類運動的氣候之中。允許戶外運動的較為溫和的氣候無疑要比存在於該國其他地區較為惡劣的氣候對任何人的身體更為有利。除此之外，諸如警察、消防員以及鋼鐵工人這些職業，自然要比其他類別的職業更加危險，從而導致一個人的壽命可能縮短。該作者沒能考慮到任何有可能由人們所在地區的氣候差異或其職業差異所致的壽命長短方面的差別，從而削弱了其論據及其結論。 最後，當作者作出這樣的陳述，即大夫不應該向其病人建議適度的運動，而只應該鼓勵每日進行戶外劇烈的運動時，其論述的結論中便產生了一個關鍵性的缺陷。所得出的結論在論述中絕對找不到任何可資佐證的依據--甚至，只是直到社論結束之處才提及適度的運動。此外，此項論述沒能注意到所作的研究僅涉及男性，而非涉及同樣也作為大夫病人的女性和兒童。再者，對於某些男性、女性、及兒童而言，每天的戶外劇烈運動實際上反而會危害他們的健康，尤其是對於那些有心臟病危險或生活在惡劣氣候中的人們來說。 歸納而言，本社論作者沒能證明大夫們為什麼就應該推薦劇烈的每日戶外運動，而不是適度的運動，無論病人是男性、女性、還是孩子。若需要強化其論點，作者應擺出證據，將男性每日劇烈的戶外運動和所有大夫的病人的運動直接聯繫起來，然後才採納任何這樣的建議。這一薄弱的論據實際上有可能引起的對病人健康的傷害，會遠超過它所可能防範的傷害。

Issue

"The purpose of many advertisements is to make consumers want to buy a product so that they will 'be like' the person in the ad. This practice is effective because it not only sells products but also helps people feel better about themselves."


Sample Essay

Many advertisements do indeed use attractive models or celebrities to entice consumers into buying the products that are being promoted. Who would not like to look like the beautiful models that are depicted enjoying the product? Who would not like to be like a Michael Jordan or Tiger Woods? To a certain extent, buying products to emulate the persons shown in the advertisements can make a person feel better about him or herself. But this type of advertisement can be a double-edged sword - when the product does not make the person "be like" the person in the advertisement, there can be disappointment and disillusionment with the product.

Marketing departments have long known that using attractive models and celebrity endorsers can help to persuade consumers to buy a product. Some customers may actually believe that buying and using the product will make them "be like" the people featured in the ad. For other consumers, there is probably at least some subconscious reaction that causes them to believe that they will in fact assume some of the characteristics of the person depicted in the advertisement. Consumers with a lower sense of self-esteem are more likely to buy a product based on the motivation that they will become like someone else.

Proof of this marketing axiom can be found by simply looking at advertisements from around the world. People featured in advertisements are almost always good-looking, healthy and physically fit. Marketers are savvy enough, and enough market research has proven that, consumers are motivated to buy by advertisements featuring attractive models. Even advertisements that are aimed at the older people of a population will feature attractive older people. Although there has been some criticism about the effect of showing only "beautiful people" on the general population, particularly on young women, advertisers know that beauty sells. But whether this practice makes people feel better about themselves depends on the individual and is certainly open to debate.

Some individuals with a low sense of self-esteem, especially younger people, may purchase products in an attempt to make themselves be like the person featured in the advertisement. Young women in particular may buy cosmetics or clothing advertised by beautiful models in an attempt to look the same as them. Young men may buy athletic shoes or apparel in an attempt to perform athletically in the same way that the person featured in the advertisement plays. These people may then become further discouraged when they use or wear the product and find out that they are the same person that they were before. Buying the product hasn't changed anything.

There are others that may derive a certain sense of satisfaction over the fact that they wear the same underwear as some beautiful models or that they drink the same soft drink as Britney Spears. These people in general already have a good sense of who they are and don't expect a particular product to perform miracles for them. For these people, the purchase of the product is not so much as an image enhancer; it is more of a form of self-expression. Perhaps drinking a Pepsi-Cola makes them feel younger or wearing Nike shoes makes them feel more athletic, no matter how old or inactive they may be in reality. In this manner, it is possible that advertising can make people feel better about themselves.

Marketing and advertising absolutely must appeal to people in one way or another to be successful. Research has shown that using celebrities and attractive people can motivate consumers to purchase a product. In whatever manner, advertisers hope that they actually can make people feel better about themselves, because that can help foster repeat purchases of a product. Ultimately, whether an advertisement makes a person feel better about him or herself depends on the individual and how they perceive themselves as compared to the particular advertisement in question.

(692 words)


觀點陳述型作文[題目]

"許多廣告的目的在於，通過使顧客購買某種商品，從而讓他們覺得他們將會和廣告中的那個人'相差無幾'。這一做法甚為有效，因為它不僅能售出產品，而且也幫助人們有更好的自我感覺。"


[範文正文]

許多廣告確實使用迷人的模特或名人來誘使顧客購買所推銷的產品。試想，誰不想看上去像廣告所描繪的那個正在享受該產品的漂亮模特呢？誰不喜歡成為麥克爾

The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.

"Too much emphasis is placed on the development of reading skills in elementary school. Many students who are discouraged by the lonely activity of reading turn away from schoolwork merely because they are poor readers. But books recorded on audiocassette tape provide an important alternative for students at this crucial stage in their education, one the school board should not reject merely because of the expense involved. After all, many studies attest to the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; there is even evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become able readers. Thus, hearing books on tape can only make students more eager to read and to learn. Therefore, the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape and to use them in elementary education."

In this argument, the writer claims that elementary schools place too much emphasis on the development of reading skills; therefore books on audiocassette should be provided as an alternative method of learning. The arguer attempts to substantiate the conclusion by citing studies that show the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; including evidence that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become better readers. This argument ultimately fails as it suffers from several critical fallacies.

First of all, the writer flatly states, without any supporting evidence whatsoever, that many students are discouraged by the "lonely" activity of reading, then continues on in the same sentence to state that students turn away from schoolwork solely because they are poor readers. Students often read to themselves or to the other students in a classroom situation - hardly a lonely activity. Additionally, this argument puts the effect before the cause - inviting the circular logic that students stop trying to learn to read because they are poor readers. Following this argument to its logical conclusion, because they are poor readers, they should not try to learn how to improve their reading. This absurd argument is analogous to saying that a new student should never start to learn in the first place, because he or she knows nothing.

Secondly, the writer cites as evidence in favor of the use of audiocassettes the idea that students whose parents read to them are even more likely to become proficient readers. It is at best doubtful that this provides proof that listening to someone read a book stimulates a young mind to learn to read better. It is far more likely that the child gains an interest in learning to read from the parents themselves, not the physical act of having something read to them. In this situation, the parent is showing the child his or her ability to read, which the child will naturally want to emulate. Furthermore, it is likely that a parent that spends time reading to a child is likely to be a much more encouraging parent, particularly when it comes to that child's education.

Thirdly, the writer fails to convince in his argument that hearing books on audiocassette makes a child more eager to read and to learn. The author cites many studies that show value in allowing students to hear books read aloud - he or she does not state that the studies show whether that value manifests itself as better reading skills or simply better listening skills, which seems more likely than any improvement in reading ability.

Finally, the author fails to take into consideration that merely listening to books on audiocassette fails to provide the visual stimulation necessary to develop higher level reading skills. It is more likely that hearing a book on audiocassette would discourage that student from ever reading that particular book on his or her own. Elementary schools are the main developing grounds for a student's reading abilities- there is no substitute for actively learning to actually see the writing and comprehend what it is trying to say. Listening skills can be developed through means other than by hearing books on audiocassette. Reading skills are an absolutely irreplaceable and fundamental part of an elementary student's education.

In conclusion, the writer's argument fails to address several weak areas that lead to a rejection of the overall conclusion that the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape for use in elementary education. To strengthen the argument, direct cause and effect evidence should be set forth that shows better overall learning without any loss in the development of higher level reading skills for students.

(612 words)

　


參考譯文


[題目]

下述文字摘自一封致某地方報紙編輯的信函：

"在小學里，人們對閱讀技能的培養強調得過分了。許多對孤獨的閱讀活動望而卻步的學生無心專註於學業，僅僅是因為他們閱讀能力薄弱。但是，錄製在盒式錄音磁帶上的書本內容卻可以向學生在其教育中如此關鍵的這一階段提供另外一個重要的選擇方案。對於這一方案，校董事會不能純粹因為所涉及到的費用而予以擯棄。不管怎麼說，許多研究均可驗證讓學生聆聽大聲朗誦書本內容這一做法的價值。甚至還不乏這樣的證據，即有些學生，由於其父母將書本內容朗讀給他們聽，就更有可能成為閱讀能力很強的人。因此，在盒式錄音磁帶上聽書本內容只會使學生更迫切地去閱讀和學習。故校董事會應該鼓勵學校去購置磁帶書本，並將其應用於小學教學之中。"


[範文正文]

在本段論述中，作者宣稱小學過分強調對學生閱讀能力的培養；因此，錄製在盒式錄音磁帶上的書本內容應提供給學生，作為又一種可選擇的學習方法。論述者通過援引某些研究，力圖來證明自己的結論，所援引的研究表明，讓學生聆聽書本內容被大聲朗讀這一做法不無價值。論述者還提供了這樣的證據，即有些學生，由於其父母親將書本內容朗讀給他們聽，就較有可能成為閱讀能力很強的人。該論點由於存在著某些嚴重的邏輯謬誤而最終無法站得住腳。 首先，作者言之鑿鑿地、且在毫無任何佐證性證據的情況下陳述道，許多學生對"孤獨的"閱讀行為望而卻步，接著在同一個句子中繼續陳述道，學生會僅僅因為閱讀能力差而無心投入到學業之中。學生常常會在課堂氛圍中自己默讀或者朗讀給其他學生聽，這就很難將閱讀說成是一種"孤獨的"活動。此外，該論點將因果倒置--訴諸於循環論證式邏輯推理 --學生們因為閱讀技能差而不願努力去學習閱讀。按此論據得出的邏輯結論便是：因為他們閱讀能力差，他們就不必作任何努力去學習如何來提高其閱讀能力。這一荒謬的論述彷彿就像是在說，一個新生永遠沒有必要開始學習任何東西，因為這位新生一無所知。

其次，作者援引了某一理念作為證據，用來為盒式錄音磁帶的使用進行辯護，這一理念便是，當一個學生有父母對他進行朗讀時，他便更有可能成為一個精於閱讀的人。如果將這視為證據，說明聽他人朗讀一本書便能刺激一顆年幼的心靈去學習如何具有更強的閱讀能力，這充其量也是十分令人懷疑的。更有可能的是，孩子從父母身上所獲得的是一種去學習閱讀的興趣，而非由他人對他們進行朗讀這一具體行為本身。在此情形中，父母所做的是向孩子表明他或她的閱讀能力，孩子自然願意模仿這一能力。再者，一位花時間來給孩子進行朗讀的父親或母親更有可能是一個教子有方的人，尤其是在涉及到孩子教育這一方面。

第三，作者在其論述中沒能讓我們相信在盒式錄音磁帶上聽書能使孩子更加渴望去閱讀和學習。作者援引了多項研究，以期證明讓學生聽人大聲朗讀書本這一做法的價值。但這位作者並沒能說清楚，這些研究所表明的價值是否呈現為更強的閱讀技能，或者只是呈現為更強的聽力技能，而這一技能似乎比任何閱讀能力方面的提高來得更有可能。

最後需要指出的是，作者沒有考慮到這樣一個因素，即純粹在盒式錄音帶上聽書是無法提供培養較高層次閱讀技能所必需的視覺刺激的。情況更有可能是，在盒式錄音帶上聽某一本書會打消該學生自己去閱讀那本特定的書的積極性。小學教育是發展孩子閱讀能力的主要階段，沒有任何東西可以來替代積極的學習行為，親眼去看所寫的內容並去理解字裡行間所要表達的內容。要發展聽力技能，並不必定需要藉助在盒式錄音帶上聽書這一手段。閱讀技能是小學生教育中絕對無可替代的和最基本的部分。

歸納而言，作者的論述沒有能解決某些薄弱之處，正是這些沒能糾正的薄弱之處，使學校董事會應該鼓勵學校去購買磁帶書本用於小學教育這一總體結論無法得以成立。若要使其論據更具充分說服力，必須擺出直接的因果證據來證明，學生在發展較高層次的閱讀技能方面在沒有蒙受任何損失的情況下，總體學習效果得到了提高。　

Issue

"When we concern ourselves with the study of history, we become storytellers. Because we can never know the past directly but must construct it by interpreting evidence, exploring history is more of a creative enterprise than it is an objective pursuit. All historians are storytellers."


Sample Essay

There would seem to be two different perspectives presented in the above statement. The first two sentences are concerned with exploring history and would seem to discuss looking at history that has already been written. People who concern themselves with the study of history are not storytellers, but rather story interpreters. The last sentence refers to the people that write about history, the historians themselves. Certainly, to a certain extent, historians must be storytellers because they have a story to tell. But the term "storyteller" seems to imply a greater amount of creativity than what is involved in actually explaining what has happened in history. For the purposes of this essay, I will focus on the perspective of the historian, as it would appear to be the underlying core idea.

From the perspective of the historian, most historians do not have the benefit of having lived through the period of history that they are writing about. By researching through thousands of old letters, legal documents, family heirlooms and the like, historians must look at fragments of history and somehow put these pieces together to reconstruct what actually happened. In this sense, they must be storytellers because inevitably, their personal insights become part of what others will see when they read the historian's writings. As an example, there are many differing opinions as to whether Thomas Jefferson actually fathered children with one of his slaves. Some historians have written that it is a virtual certainty, while others argue that it was his brother, rather than Thomas himself, that fathered the children. They both cannot be right. Although they are all historians, they are also storytellers giving their opinion on what version of events actually transpired.

Historians that are documenting events as they happen today have much less of an opportunity to fall into the "storyteller" category as they are present as witnesses to these events as they are happening. Television, newspaper and other media coverage is widespread and almost unrelenting. Television captures visuals and audios that are spread rapidly around the world and theoretically can last forever. There is much less room for putting one's own "spin" on an event, especially regarding the exact details of what happened. But even with today's events, there is room for opinion on the part of the historian. For example, historians are already arguing what evidence the United States government had regarding potential terrorism prior to the incredible tragedy of September 11, 2001. Looking back now, it seems obvious that the government should have known that something on a large scale was going to happen. With the benefit of hindsight, there were several failures in the government's counter-terrorism efforts. Historians will now argue over the exact version of what happened, as they become storytellers to try to explain 9/11 to future generations.

Another example showcasing the idea that all historians are storytellers is that of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Variations on who was responsible and what actually happened have been the focus of hundreds, if not thousands, of books and historical accounts. Many historians argue vehemently that his or her account of history is the "true" version. Given the same evidence, historians decide which evidence is credible and which is not to arrive at their own conclusions. Clearly storytelling is a big part of how history is written.

Particularly when it concerns ancient history, all historians must be storytellers to a certain degree. "Connecting the dots" of surviving evidence from the time period or event being examined requires a certain amount of personal intuition and supposition. Historians that write about events from the more recent periods will probably be less inclined to be "storytellers" as the sheer mass of evidence that is presented will likely lead to better documentation of historic events as they happen.

(684 words)


觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"當我們關注歷史研究時，我們便成為故事講述者。由於我們永遠也不可能直接知道過去。而只能通過對證據的解釋來構建歷史，因此，探究歷史更多地成為一項創造性的事業，而不是一種客觀的求索。所有歷史學家都是故事講述者。"


[範文正文]

上述陳述中似乎存在兩個不同的視角。開頭兩個句子所涉及到的是探究歷史，所探討的似乎是審視業已被著述的那種歷史。專註於歷史研究的人不是故事講述者，而是故事解釋者。毫無疑問，在某種程度上，史學家必須是故事講述者，因為他們有故事要講。但"故事講述者"這一術語似乎暗示著一種更大程度上的創造性，要超過實際解釋歷史上所發生過的一切這一過程中所涉及的程度。為了本文的目的，我將集中在史學家這一視角，因為這似乎是論題中所包含的核心主題。

從史學家這一視角看，大多數史學家均無幸親身經歷他們所著述的那段歷史。通過研究數以千計的古老書信，法律文件，家族的傳世之寶等物件，史學家必須分析一個個殘缺不全的歷史片斷，以某種方式將這些碎片拼湊起來，重新構建實際所發生的一切。從這層意義上講，他們不得不成為故事講述者，因為他們的個人見解不可避免地成為其他人研讀史學家著作時所見到的一部分。例如，圍繞著托馬斯

Topic

The Trash-Site Safety Council has recently conducted a statewide study of possible harmful effects of garbage sites on the health of people living near the sites. A total of five sites and 300 people were examined. The study revealed, on average, only a small statistical correlation between the proximity of homes to garbage sites and the incidence of unexplained rashes among people living in these homes. Furthermore, although it is true that people living near the largest trash sites had a slightly higher incidence of the rashes, there was otherwise no correlation between the size of the garbage sites and people's health. Therefore, the council is pleased to announce that the current system of garbage sites does not pose a significant health hazard. We see no need to restrict the size of such sites in our state or to place any restrictions on the number of homes built near the sites.


Sample Essay

In this argument, the council comes to the conclusion that the current system of garbage sites does not pose a significant health hazard and that therefore, there is no need to restrict the size of the garbage sites or the number of homes built near the site. To support this conclusion, the council cites a study of five garbage sites and three hundred people that showed only a small correlation between the closeness of the homes to the sites and the incidence of unexplained rashes among those people living there. Additionally, the council came to this conclusion despite the fact that people living near the largest such site had a slightly higher incidence of the rashes. This argument suffers from several critical weaknesses in logic and information presented.

First of all, the members of the "Trash-Site Safety Council" are not listed, which could make a big difference in the believability of the study. A truly independent council could produce results that could be considered much more reliable than one with members with possible conflicts of interest. However, if the council were made up mainly of people who have an interest in finding that there is no problem with the trash sites - homebuilders or city councilmen, for example - then the study would lack some credibility. Without knowing the backgrounds and priorities of the council members, the argument is greatly weakened.

Secondly, this was cited as a statewide study, but only five sites and three hundred people were studied. Although on average there was only a small statistical correlation shown between the nearness of the trash sites and the homes and people who lived in them, the margin of error could be quite large due to studying only a small sample of people that live near the trash sites in the state. It would be much more persuasive were a large majority of the homes and people near trash sites studied rather than merely a small percentage.

Furthermore, the study cites only unexplained rashes as a health-related problem with some statistical correlation. The presence or absence of other types of health problems is not mentioned in the study. It could be that there were other, perhaps not immediately noticeable health problems such as cancer affecting the people living near the sites. Additionally, the study appears to cover only one moment in time, or at least the duration of the study is not discussed. Perhaps there are long-term effects that cannot be discovered by a study conducted over a short period of time. This weakens the argument by leaving out information that could help to persuade the reader one way or another.

To add to the lack of credibility, the study does not discuss the relative size of the garbage sites or how close the homes and people were to the sites. There is really no data present to allow a proper decision to be made restricting the size of the sites or how close the homes could be located near the trash sites. At the very least, the fact that there is a slightly higher incidence of rashes in those living nearest the biggest trash sites indicates a need for further studies to prove or disprove the idea that trash sites of a certain size or location are health hazards.

In summary, the findings and conclusions of the Trash-Site Safety Council are based mainly on speculation and a small amount of indicative data. The disclosure of the council members motives, the study of a larger sample of the population and trash sites, and further information on other types of health problems and relative nearness of the homes and people to the trash sites would give a much better argument either for or against restrictions on the such sites.

(640 words)

　


參考譯文


［題目］

垃圾場安全委員會最近在全州範圍內進行了一項調查，旨在研究垃圾場對居住在附近的居民的身體有可能產生的有害影響。被調查的有五座垃圾場以及300多位居民。研究表明，平均而言，居所緊挨著垃圾場這一事實與這些居所中所居住人口發生的無法解釋的疹子之間，僅存在著一種微弱的數據關係。此外，雖然居住在最大的垃圾場附近的居民發疹的程度略高這一事實屬實，但在其他方面，垃圾場的大小與人們的健康之間毫無關係。因此，委員會可以甚為欣慰地宣布，目前這套垃圾場體制並不會對健康構成一項重大危險。我們認為毫無必要去限制本州內這類垃圾場的規模，也沒有必要去限制垃圾堆附近所建造的房屋數量。


[範文正文]

在本段論述中，委員會得出結論，認為目前的垃圾場體制並沒有對健康構成一種重大危險，因此，毫無必要去限制垃圾場的規模或垃圾場周圍的住房數量。為了支持這一結論，委員會援引了針對五所垃圾場和300位居民所作的一項研究，據此證明在住房緊挨著垃圾場與居住在那裡的人中間所發生的難以名狀的疹子之間僅存微弱的關聯。此外，委員會在得出這一結論時，全然無視這樣一個事實，即居住在這類最大的垃圾場附件的人發病的機率略高。論述在邏輯思路和呈示的信息方面不乏某些關鍵性的弱點。

其一，"垃圾場安全委員會"的成員沒有被清楚列舉出來，這一點可令該研究的可信度產生巨大的差異。一個完全獨立的委員會所提出的結論，會被視為比一個成員間可能存在著利害關係衝突的委員會所得出的結論可信度高。但是，如果組成該委員會的成員所感興趣的僅僅是去揭示出垃圾場不存在問題--例如象房地產開發商或市政廳議員，那麼，該項研究會失去某些可信度。如果對委員會成員的背景以及他們所優先考慮的問題一無所知，則本段論述倍遭削弱。

其二，所作的研究據稱是涵蓋整個州的，但被調查的僅有五座垃圾場和300位居民。儘管平均而論，垃圾場的近距離與住所以及與居住在這些房屋內的人之間存在一絲微弱的聯繫，但由於所研究的僅是該州內居住在垃圾場附近的很小一批人口樣本，故誤差程度可能會相當的嚴重。如果在所有垃圾場附近的人和住所當中，有大部分的居民和住所得以被研究，而不只是一個很小的百分比的話，那麼，所作的調查將更具說服力。

此外，該研究僅援引難以名狀的疹子作為與健康相關的、帶有一定統計學關係的問題。該研究沒有提及其他類別的健康問題存在與否。情況有可能是，還存在著其他類型的、或許不是那麼昭然若揭的健康問題，例如癌症，正影響著居住在這些垃圾場附近的人們。再有，該研究所涵蓋的似乎只是一小段時間，或者至少該研究的時間跨度不曾得到討論。也許，有些長遠影響決非是一份只在短期內進行的研究所能涵蓋得了的。這一點再度削弱了本段論述，因為可以使讀者信服的信息被疏忽了。 使可信度進一步受損的是，該研究沒有討論各垃圾場的相對規模，也沒討論住房和居民離垃圾場到底有多近。實際上，一點都沒有數據來允許人們作出一種恰當的判斷，是否應該去限制垃圾場的規模，也沒討論住房與垃圾場之間相隔多遠才算安全距離。至少，在那些居住在最靠近最大的垃圾場的人身上疹子的發生率略高這一事實表明，有必要進行更深入的研究，以證明或駁倒某種規模或某種位置的垃圾場會對健康構成危害這一想法。 概括而論，垃圾場安全委員會的研究發現和研究結論所主要依據的是揣測和數量有限的說明數據。如能揭示出委員會成員的動機，研究為數更多的人口和垃圾場樣本，就其他類別的健康問題以及住房和居民應與垃圾場之間保持怎樣的相對距離提供更進一步的信息的話，那麼，作者便能作出更為充分的論述，無論是贊成還是反對對垃圾場實施限制。

Issue

"Some educational systems emphasize the development of student's capacity for reasoning and logical thinking, but students would benefit more from an education that also taught them to explore their own emotions."

Sample Essay

The ability of a student to think clearly using reasoning and logical thinking is of paramount importance in order to ensure his or her success as an individual after graduation from a university. To be able to look at a situation and use logic and reason to analyze the facts and develop an opinion or solution is to have a solid foundation for success in all aspects of life. Exploring one's emotions is important, but it is outside of the realm of what can be learned in a university classroom. Emotional self-exploration is best done outside of a classroom situation, although there may be some opportunity for students in the classroom to learn a methodology for doing so.

The ability to survive and thrive in a society is based on the assumption that human beings act according to reason and logic. From a very early age, most people are taught that certain actions will bring about certain reactions, and that by using logic you can figure out what the response will be in most situations. Reasoning is also developed early on, although sometimes it is difficult to explain reasoning to a two-year old. Humans are probably born with a desire for reason and logic, as demonstrated by almost any child's incessant asking of the question "Why?". To understand the underlying reasons why something happens is a fundamental part of human nature, proven by the exploits of explorers, scientists and mathematicians over the course of human history.

As a result, the basic framework of most forms of human society requires that a person must act according to the demands of reason and logic. Rules of law are based on the concept that individuals respond to rules based on reasoning and logic. The ability to think according to logic and reason is so imperative that it is essential that it be taught to university students at even the highest levels. What if law schools and medical schools decided that it was more important to allow students to explore their own emotions at the expense of learning the latest laws or medical techniques? Perhaps one course could be taught to help students to deal with the emotional demands of being a lawyer or a doctor, but to train students to explore their own emotions at the expense of learning about logical and reasonable thinking would be to invite catastrophe in society.

One of the main problems with emphasizing to students the importance of exploring one's own emotions is that it creates a "me first" attitude towards their studies. Certainly a degree of self-introspection is necessary to deal with society, but to put emphasis on this above all else is to inculcate in the student the idea that he or she is more important than others, and that what he or she thinks matters a great deal more than it probably does in reality. Too much emotional self-exploration could create individuals who see their emotions as more important than what they contribute to society, which would damage that society as a whole.

A certain amount of self-introspection into one's emotions is probably helpful to the development of a student as an overall person. Usually this kind of activity is explored fully in basic psychology classes that most students are required to take at university. Basic courses in sociology and psychology as well as other humanities courses give students plenty of opportunity to explore their own emotions. Rather than teaching students how to explore their own emotions, it would seem to be a better idea to teach students how to deal with these emotions. Only by instructing students in reasoning and logic can they learn how to apply whatever inner emotions they may have to becoming a successful member of a society.

(627 words)

觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"有些教育強調發展學生的邏輯和思維能力，但一種也能教學生去探索其自我情感的教育，可使學生們獲益更多。"

[範文正文]

一個學生運用邏輯推理和思維進行清晰的思索，這一能力對於這位學生大學以後的個人成功具有至高無上的重要性。能夠審視某一特定情形，應用邏輯和理性，對事實展開分析，並形成觀點或解決方法，這對於在生活中的任何方面獲得成功，都能奠定一個堅實的基礎。探索個人的情感無疑是重要的，但它外在於大學課堂的教學範圍。個人情感探索最好是在課堂情景之外的地方來完成，雖然學生在課堂內可能有機會學到這樣做的某種方法。

在社會中得以生存和飛黃騰達，這一能力基於這樣一個前提，即人類須按照理性和邏輯來行動。從孩提時代起，大多數人就被告知，自己的某些行為會造成他人的某些反應，通過應用邏輯分析，你就能推斷在大多數情形中他人的反應會是什麼樣的。推理的能力在小時候也得以培養起來，儘管有時候向一個2歲的小孩解釋推理甚為困難。人類對於理性和邏輯的慾望可能生而有之，舉例來說，幾乎任何一個孩子都會"為什麼……？"地問個沒完。要弄懂事情發生的基本原因是人性的一個基本部分，這一點可從人類歷史進程中探險家、科學家和數學家們的功績中得以證明。

由此看來，大多數形式的人類社會的基本架構要求人們按照理性和邏輯的要求行事。法律的規則基於這樣一個概念，即個人須遵循基於邏輯和理性思維的規則。必須按邏輯和理性來思索，這一能力是如此至關重要，以至於即使處在最高層次上的大學生，也必須被授以這一能力。試想一下，如果法學院或醫學院認為，讓學生去探索其情感，而放棄學習最新的法律和醫療技術，其結果將會怎樣？或許，可以開設一門課來幫助學生處理當律師或大夫的情感要求。但是，以學習邏輯和推理思維為代價，訓練學生去探索其情感，這意味著在社會中招致災難。

向學生強調探索其情感重要性，這一做法的諸多主要問題之一是，它會造成學生對其學習產生一種"唯　我獨尊"的心態。當然，一定程度上的自我反省對於和社會打交道是必要的，但將它凌駕於其他一切之上將會在學生的內心灌輸這樣一種理念，即他（她）要比他人更為重要，他（她）的想法極為重要，而實際上或許並非如此。過多的自我情感探索所造就的將是這樣一些個人，他們會將其情感視為比他們對社會的貢獻更為重要，而這於整個社會都是有害的。

一定程度上的對個人情感的自我反省或許有助於學生整體人格的發展。一般而言，這種活動大多數學生在大學期間必須選擇的心理學基礎課程中可得到充分探索。社會學和心理學的基礎，以及其他人文學科的課程，賦予學生大量的機會去探索其個人情感。相對於去教授學生如何去探索其個人情感，教授學生如何去處理這些情感或許更為有益。只有通過教育學生提高其邏輯推理和分析能力，才能使學生學會去應用他們所擁有的任何內心情感，去成為社會的成功一員。

As people grow older, an enzyme known as PEP increasingly breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals involved in learning and memory. But now, researchers have found compounds that prevent PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart. In tests, these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats. The use of these compounds should be extended to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating-and therefore serious problems in school performance. Science finally has a solution for problems neither parents nor teachers could solve.

In this argument, the arguer states that researchers have found compounds that keep an enzyme known as PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart, which are known to be involved in learning and memory. The arguer states that tests have shown that these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats, and that therefore, these compounds should be administered to students with poor memory and difficulty in concentrating. This argument is unconvincing because it contains several critical flaws in logic.

First of all, the arguer states that as people grow older, PEP breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals that are involved in learning and memory. It is true that generally, as people get older, they tend to have more problems with learning and memory. However, there is no direct link mentioned between the breaking down of the neuropeptide chemicals and the loss of learning ability or memory. Additionally, the arguer mentions neuropeptide chemicals that are broken down by PEP. What the researchers have found is a compound that prevents neuropeptides from breaking apart. These are two different physical actions: the breaking down of neuropeptide chemicals as opposed to the breaking apart of the neuropeptides themselves. Furthermore, it is not stated which of these physical actions is involved with the loss of learning ability and memory. It is not explicitly stated that the breaking down of chemicals causes a loss in learning ability and memory, only that this happens as people grow older. It is also not expressly stated whether the breaking apart of the neuropeptides themselves causes memory loss or a lessened learning ability. Without showing a direct link between the effect of keeping the neuropeptides from breaking apart and a reduction in the loss of memory and learning ability, the efficacy of the compounds is called into question.

Secondly and most obviously, the compounds were only tested on rats. Rats may have a similar genetic structure to humans, but they are most certainly not the same as humans. There may be different causes for the learning and memory problems in rats as opposed to that of humans. The effect of the compounds on rats may also be very different from their effect on human beings. It is absurd in the extreme to advocate giving these compounds to students, even assuming that they would help the students with their studies, without conducting further studies assessing the compounds' overall effects on humans. The argument fails on this particular fact if for no other reason.

Additionally, the arguer begins his or her argument by stating that "as people grow older", PEP breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals involved in learning and memory. At the end of the argument, the arguer advocates extending the compounds that prevent PEP from breaking neuropeptides apart to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating. Students are generally young, not older people. There is no evidence presented that shows what actually causes students to have a poor memory or difficulty in concentrating. Indeed, it is more likely that it is extracurricular activities or a lack of sleep that causes such problems in students, not a problem associated with aging. It is highly unlikely that even if the stated compounds could help prevent the memory loss and decreased learning ability associated with aging that it would have any benefits for students.

In summary, the arguer fails to convince with the argument as presented. To strengthen the argument, the arguer must show a direct link between the breaking apart of neuropeptides and loss of memory and learning ability. Additionally, he or she must show that students' poor memory and difficulty in concentrating is a result of the same process, and that the researcher's compounds would have as beneficial an effect on humans as it seems to have on rats.

(633 words)

　


參考譯文


［題目］

隨著人們日漸衰老，一種被稱為PEP的酶會不斷地分解學習與記憶過程中所涉及到的神經肽化學物。但現在，研究人員已發現了可阻止PEP致使神經肽分裂的化合物。在測試中，這些化合物幾乎在老鼠身上能完全恢復缺失的記憶。這些化合物的運用應該也推廣到記憶力衰弱或專註力有困難的學生身上，不然將會造成學業表現上的嚴重問題。科學終於解決了那些令家長和老師束手無策的問題。


[範文正文]

在本段論述中，論述者指出，研究人員已發現了某些化合物，可以阻止一種被稱為PEP的酶的物質將神經肽予以分解，而神經肽則是學習和記憶過程中所需涉及到的物質。論述者還宣稱，檢測結果表明，這些化合物幾乎完全恢復了老鼠身上缺失的記憶。因此這些化合物應該讓那些記憶力差和難於集中注意力的學生服用。這段論述缺乏說服力，因為它包含著某些邏輯推理方面甚為嚴重的缺陷。

首先，論述者稱，隨著人們漸趨衰老，PEP 會分解學習和記憶過程中所涉及的神經肽化學物。確實，隨人們漸趨衰老，他們往往會在學習和記憶方面遭遇諸多問題。但是，在神經肽化學物的分解以及學習能力與記憶力喪失之間，卻沒有提到任何直接的聯繫。除此之外，論述者提及被PEP所分解的幾種神經肽化學物。但研究人員所發現的只是一種可阻止神經肽不致於分裂的化合物。這是兩種不同性質的物理作用：神經肽化學物的分解有別於神經肽自身的分裂。此外，原論述並未陳述這兩種物理作用中的那一種與學習能力和記憶能力的喪失相涉。論述者沒有明確陳述化學物的分解導致了學習能力和記憶能力的喪失，而只是陳述這種情形只是隨著人們日趨年邁而發生。原論述中也沒有確切地陳述神經肽自身的分裂是否會導致記憶缺失或學習能力下降。如果無法在阻止神經肽分裂所能產生的作用與減少記憶能力和學習能力喪失之間證明某種直接的聯繫，那麼，化合物的效用將令人質疑。 第二，也是極為明顯地，化合物只是在老鼠身上進行了測試。雖然老鼠與人類具有類似的基因結構，但它們無論如何並不等同於人類。對於學習和記憶問題，老鼠所遇到的原因很可能全然不同於人類所遇到的原因。在沒有作進一步的研究來估評化合物對人類所產生的總體效果的情況下，就去提倡將這些化合物供學生服用，甚至假設它們有助於學生提高其學習效果，這實乃荒唐至極。即使不是出於其他原因的話，就這一特定事實本身，該段論述根本就站不住腳。 進一步而言，論述者在其論述的開始陳述道，"隨著人們漸趨衰老"，PEP會將學習和記憶過程中所涉及的神經肽化學物進行分解。在論述的結尾之處，論述者倡導將那些可阻止PEP致使神經肽分裂的化合物推廣至那些記憶力和專註力差的學生身上。學生普遍而言都是年輕人，而不是老年人。論述者沒有拿出任何證據來證明究竟是什麼原因實際導至學生們記憶力和專註力下降。較有可能的是，是那些課外活動，或缺少充足的睡眠，導致了學生身上的這些問題。即使所提及的那些化合物真的有助於防止與衰老相關的記憶缺失問題和學習能力下降問題，它們也極不可能也能為學生帶來任何的裨益。 總而言之，論述者沒能用其提出的論據來說服我們。若要使其論述在邏輯上成立，論述者必須在神經肽的分裂與記憶能力和學習能力的缺失之間證明某種直接的聯繫。此外，論述者必須證明學生記憶能力差和注意力難以集中均是同一過程造成的，並且研究人員所發現的化合物對人類所產生的效果會對老鼠似乎所產生的效果同樣的好。

Issue

"It is primarily through identification through social groups that we define ourselves."

Sample Essay

As primarily social animals, human beings naturally seek out different groups to which they feel they have a certain sense of belonging. But there are two different aspects of this issue involved: identifying oneself with a social group for its social implications and identifying oneself with a social group for internal needs. A person can have two different identities, one that involves an individual's self-perception and the way that others see that particular individual. There is a natural dichotomy between the two sides of one's personality that is usually displayed between the different types of social groups with which an individual may identify oneself.

Self-definition can either be honest or dishonest. A person may join a social group because he or she thinks that the people that belong to this type of group are the same as he or she, whether it is true or not. The important detail to the individual is that he or she would like to be the same as the people that belong to this particular social group. As one example, consider a person who grew up poor and poorly educated, but became wealthy through the luck of the lottery or an inheritance from an unknown but wealthy relative. This individual then joins a wine-tasting club and buys season tickets to the local Philharmonic Orchestra and opera house. Although this individual knows nothing about wine, orchestras or opera, he or she is seeking to identify him or herself as a culturally literate person simply because the person is now wealthy. Through joining these social groups, the individual is seeking to define him or herself as socially elite, although the only difference now is that the person has great wealth and in reality probably does not fit in with the other members of the groups. In this case, one's self-definition by identifying with social groups does not match up with how society still identifies the individual.

On the other hand, there are individuals that very clearly demonstrate who they are by their identification with certain social groups. At a very basic level, younger people may join gangs based on a sense of identification with certain gang members or gang ideas. By displaying different identifying tattoos or certain colors, these people clearly identify who they are and what they stand for by the particular to which they belong. Certain religious groups also give a clear identity to their members. Joining an Islamic fundamentalist group such as the Taliban or an Orthodox Jewish organization indicates a certain identity that is common to all of its members. Political organizations such as Greenpeace and the National Organization for Women also make a certain statement about the identity of an individual member. In all of these cases, an individual's self-perception and how others view that individual are probably very similar. These types of organizations speak to a person's very fundamental values and joining one is probably that person's way of saying to the world "this is who I am".
Joining other types of groups may or may not indicate a person's self-identification. Being a Republican or a Democrat, for example, may just be a matter of whichever party your parents belong to. Spending time with a particular group of friends may only mean that you like only one of the people in the group or you have nothing better to do, it may have nothing to do with your self-identification. People that belong to these groups do not necessarily belong to any one social group for identification purposes; it may be only a matter of convenience.

It depends on the individual and the particular social group under discussion as to whether we primarily identify ourselves through association with social groups. Once the individual or the social group has been identified, a determination must still be made as to whether the individual has joined for self-identification purposes or to impress upon others a certain image of that individual.

(656 words)


[題目]

"我們主要通過與社會群體的認同而來界定我們自身。"

[範文正文]

作為具有顯著社會性的動物，人類自然會去尋覓某些他們覺得與其存在某種歸屬感的不同群體。但這個問題涉及兩個方面：基於某一社會群體的社會含義而認同該群體，以及出於某些內在需要而認同某一社會群體。一個人可以擁有兩個不同的身份，一種身份涉及到個人的自我感受，另一個所涉及的是他人對這個特定個人的看法。在一個人性格的這兩方面之間，存在著一種自然的兩分法。個人的性格一般就體現在這一個人所可能認同的不同社會群體之間。

自我界定可以是誠實的，亦可以是不誠實的。一個人之所以加入某一社會群體，可能是因為他（她）認為屬於這一群體的那些人與他（她）相同，無論這是真還是假。對於這個個人具有重要性的一個細節是，他（她）希望與屬於這一特定社會群體的人們相同。例如，我們不妨考慮一下這樣一個人，他出身貧窮，沒能受過良好的教育，但通過彩票的運氣或由於繼承了一位無名但卻有錢的親戚的遺產而一夜暴富。此人然後加入一個品酒俱樂部，併購買當地愛樂樂團和歌劇院的季票。雖然此君對酒、樂隊或歌劇一竅不通，但他（她）卻竭力將自己表現為有文化修養的人，僅僅因為他（她）現在很有錢。通過介入這些社會群體，此人力圖將自己界定為社會精英，雖然現在唯一的區分是，這人極其有錢，而實際上他（她）與這些群體內的其他成員格格不入。在此情形中，通過認同某些社會群體而來進行自我界定，這與社會如何看待這個人仍然相去甚遠。

另一方面，有些人則通過他們與某些社會群體的認同而明白無誤地來表明他們是何種人。在某個甚為基本的層面上，青少年會基於他們與某些幫派成員或幫派理念的認同感而參加某些幫派。通過展示與眾不同的認別性紋身圖案或某些顏色，這些人明確表明他們是誰，以及他們代表著什麼。某些宗教團體也會賦予其成員以某個明白無誤的身份。加入諸如塔利班一類的伊斯蘭原教旨主義團體或者正統派猶太教組織標誌著其成員普遍共有的某種身份。像"綠色和平"以及"全國婦女組織"等政治團體也在就某個個體成員的身份作出某種陳述。在所有這些情形中，個體的自我感受，以及他人對其所形成的看法，二者可能甚為近似。這些類型的組織訴諸於一個人極為基本的價值觀，而加入這樣的一種組織可能就成為這個人向世界表明"我就是這樣一個人"的一種方式。

加入其他類別的組織可能表明，但也不一定表明一個人的自我認同。例如，成為共和黨還是民主黨成員，這可能只與你父母屬於哪個政黨有關。與特定一群朋友在一起，這可能只意味著你只喜歡該群體中的一個人，或者因為你除此之外無所事事。這與你的自我認同毫無關係。屬於這些群體的人並非必定出於認同的目的而屬於任一社會群體。這可能只是一種權宜之計而已。

至於我們是否主要通過與社會群體的聯繫而來表明我們的身份，這取決於個人以及所涉及的特定社會群體。即使個人或社會群體得以被判明，我們還有待於去確定，一個人加入某一社會群體，究竟是出於自我認同的內在目的呢，還是為了將其個人形象烙在他人心頭。

In a study of reading habits of Leeville citizens conducted by the University of Leeville, most respondents said they preferred literary classics as reading material. However, a follow-up study conducted by the same researchers found that the type of book most frequently checked out of each of the public libraries in Leeville was the mystery novel. Therefore, it can be concluded that the respondents in the first study had misrepresented their reading habits.


This argument is based on two separate surveys of the citizens of Leeville, conducted by the University of Leeville. In the first survey, most respondents said that their preferred reading material was literary classics. A follow-up study by the same researchers found that mystery novels were the most frequently checked out books from each of the public libraries in Leeville. The arguer concludes that the respondents in the first study therefore misrepresented their own reading habits. This argument does not follow the facts and is therefore unconvincing due to several flaws in logic.

First of all, it is possible that none of the citizens who responded to the first survey were participants in the second survey. Statistically speaking, it is entirely possible that the first survey contained a greater majority of literary classics readers than are present in the general population of Leeville. The difference in the first study and the study of the books that were actually checked out from the library may purely be that the respondents had different interests in literature, therefore disallowing the arguer's conclusion that the first group misrepresented its preferred reading material.

Secondly, it is possible that the difference in the survey results could be attributed to the lack of availability of literary classics in the Leeville public libraries. Simply put, the library may have thousands of mystery novels available for checkout but very few literary classics in their collections. Leeville citizens may actually prefer to read literary classics - the public libraries simply may not have them for the citizens to check out and read. Another possibility is that the Leeville public libraries restrict the checkout of literary classics - perhaps treating the books as a type of "reference" material that must be read inside the library and cannot be checked out. Furthermore, it is possible that no matter how many literary classics the Leeville public libraries have, the citizens have read them all in the past, perhaps many times over, and they are therefore not checked out. These possibilities further weaken the argument that the first respondents misrepresented their reading habits.

Thirdly, literary classics are the type of book that people tend to buy for personal collections rather than checking them out of a library. It is a distinct possibility that the citizens of Leeville purchase literary classics to read and then keep in home libraries rather than checking them out of the library. Leeville citizens may prefer to read literary classics and therefore buy them for their own personal collections, thus checking other types of reading materials out of the library rather than buying them to own forever. The arguer's conclusion that the first set of respondents misrepresented their reading habits is critically weakened by this possibility.

Finally, this argument does not account for the possibility that the survey samples themselves were flawed. There is no indication given about how many people were surveyed, the demographics involved, or the specific locations involved. For example, richer people would tend not to visit public libraries but they are possibly more predisposed to reading literary classics. Similarly, people who visit public libraries may be more predisposed to reading mystery novels than literary classics. Without knowing the relationship between those first surveyed and those who visit the public libraries, it is not possible to draw a proper conclusion about the accuracy of the first group's statements.

In summary, the arguer fails to convince by jumping to a conclusion that fails to hold up to analysis. To strengthen the argument, the arguer needs to find further research that eliminates these other possibilities that preclude the judgment that the first group of respondents misrepresented their reading habits.

(614 words)

　


參考譯文


［題目］

"在一項由Leeville大學就Leeville市民閱讀習慣所作的研究中，大多數受訪對象稱,他們偏愛將文學名著作為其閱讀材料。但是，由相同的研究人員所作的一項跟蹤調查卻發現，每個公共圖書館外借得最頻繁的圖書均為志怪小說類。因此，我們可以得出這樣的結論，即第一項研究中的受訪對象沒能如實地描述出他們的閱讀習慣。"


[範文正文]

上述論斷基於由Leeville大學對Leeville市民所從事的兩項互為獨立的調查。在前一項調查中，大多數受訪對象稱他們較為偏愛的閱讀材料是文學名著。由相同的研究人員所作的一項跟蹤調查則發現，志怪小說是Leeville市每個公共圖書館外借頻率最高的一類圖書。論述者便據此得出結論認為，這樣看來，第一項研究中的受訪對象沒能如實地描述他們自己的閱讀習慣。這段論述沒能遵循事實，因而由於邏輯方面某些缺陷而無從令人置信。

首先，有可能是，對第一項調查作出問卷回答的公民，沒有一個人參加了第二項調查。從統計角度而言，完全有可能的情形是，第一項調查涵蓋了一個比Leeville總人口中所存在的來得更大的文學名著多數讀者群。第一項研究與其後對圖書館實際外借的書所作的那項研究，二者間的差異可能純粹是因為受訪對象對文學擁有全然不同的興趣，因此否定了論述者所謂第一組受訪對象沒有如實表述其所喜愛的閱讀材料的結論。

其次，兩項調查結果之間的差異或許可以歸諸於這樣一個原因，即Leeville市的公共圖書館內缺乏文學名著。說得簡單一點，圖書館可能有數千冊志怪小說供外借但卻沒能收藏多少冊文學名著。Leeville市民實際上可能甚是偏愛閱讀文學名著，但公共圖書館就是沒有此類圖書外借供市民閱讀。另一個可能性是，Leeville公共圖書館限制文學名著的外借--可能只將這類圖書當作"參考"資料，只允許在館內閱讀，不得外借。進一步而言，也有可能是，無論Leeville公共圖書館藏有多少冊文學名著，市民們在過去已將它們悉數讀完，甚至讀過許多遍，因此，這些書便不再有人借閱。這些可能性也進一步削弱了第一組受訪對象沒有如實表述其閱讀習慣的論點。

第三，對於文學名著這類書，人們往往購買來作為個人藏書，而不太傾向於從圖書館借閱。一個顯著的可能性是，Leeville市民購買文學名著來閱讀並隨後將它們收藏於家庭圖書館而不再去公共圖書館借閱。Leeville市民可能喜愛閱讀文學名著並因此購置它們作為個人藏書，因此只從圖書館借閱其他類型的閱讀材料，而不是去購買這些材料來永久地擁有。論述者關於第一組受訪對象沒有如實表述其閱讀習慣的結論，由於這一可能性而遭到致命的削弱。

最後，這段論述沒有解釋這樣一種可能性，即調查樣本本身帶有缺陷。論述者沒有擺出任何資料表明到底有多少市民接受了調查，或所涉及的人口統計學方法是什麼，或所涉及的具體地點。例如，較富有的人往往不太會光顧公共圖書館，但他們可能更喜愛閱讀文學名著。同樣地，光顧公共圖書館的人可能更喜愛閱讀志怪小說而不愛讀文學名著。如果不知道第一組受訪群體與光顧公共圖書館的群體之間的關係，就不可能就第一組群體的人的陳述的精確性得出一個恰當的結論。

總而言之，論述者沒有能說服我們，因為他（她）過於匆促地得出的結論無法經得住推敲。若要使其論點更具分量，論述者需要尋找出進一步的研究，排除掉其他那些會否定掉第一組受訪對象沒能如實地表述其閱讀習慣這一判斷的可能性。

Issue

"Humanity has made little real progress over the past century or so. Technological innovations have taken place, but the overall condition of humanity is no better. War, violence and poverty are still with us. Technology cannot change the condition of humanity."


Sample Essay

The discussion of this statement turns on what is meant by "little real progress" from the first sentence, "the overall condition of humanity" in the second sentence, and "the condition of humanity" from the third sentence. To be sure, war, violence and poverty are still with us and we as mankind are probably more aware of these problems worldwide than ever before thanks to advances in technology and communication. But depending upon the definition of progress and the condition of humanity, this would appear to be an incorrect statement.

First of all, the phrase "little real progress" from the first sentence must be defined. If the author defines progress as elimination of death, war, violence and poverty, then perhaps it could be stated that humankind has not made much improvement over the past one hundred years. People are still dying, wars are still being fought, violence is present almost everywhere and there are most likely people in every country in the world living in poverty. However, if the term "progress" is defined not as elimination of these problems but rather a reduction in them, then great progress has been made over the past century. Life expectancies are up in nearly every country of the world due to improvements in medicine and the scientific study of the human body. War and violence, although still present, has been reduced and to a large part confined to certain areas of the world rather than the global wars of the past such was World Wars I and II. Poverty has also been reduced as international trade has lead to economic improvements in many formerly impoverished nations. Very real progress has been made in these areas over the past one hundred years.

Secondly, the phrases "the overall condition of humanity" and "the condition of humanity" must be defined. If the terms mean that we are all still born into pain, suffer many tragedies during our lives, and still die in the end, then of course the overall condition of humanity is no better than it was one hundred or even one hundred thousand years ago. Life is still life, and no matter what technological innovations come along, it is unlikely that the basic facts of living as a member of the human race will ever change. However, if the term means how we are able to live our lives during the time that we are given, then again tremendous progress has been made during the past century. Cures have been found for many diseases, some of which have officially been completely eliminated. Medical treatments for other diseases have made them less deadly or less debilitating. For example, many cancer victims that would have died in the past can now go on living comfortably and cancer-free after treatment. Diabetics who would have died in the past can now live nearly normal lives. Even poor eyesight can be effectively eliminated through laser surgery. It would seem to be beyond argument that overall, the condition of humanity is much better now than it was one century ago.

If one takes a very narrow definition of "progress" and "the condition of humanity", it could be fairly stated that mankind has made little in the way of advancement over the past century. Millions of people worldwide still live in poverty. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is killing millions of people with no cure in sight. War and violence continues in the Middle East, Africa and Afghanistan. But to take this narrow point of view would be to ignore the obvious tremendous advances that have been made over the past one hundred years by the human race. As mankind continues on into the twenty-first century, it would be preferable to consider all that has been accomplished over the past one hundred years and to look ahead to future advances over the next century instead of ignoring mankind's obviously improved circumstances today.

(696 words)


觀點陳述型作文/[題目]

"在過去約一個世紀的時間中，人類幾乎沒有實現真正的進步。技術創新確實發生了，但人類的總體狀況毫無改觀。戰爭、暴力，以及貧窮仍然伴隨著我們。技術無法改善人類的生存狀況。"


[範文正文]

上述陳述中的探討所圍繞的是這樣三個概念的含義，即第一句中的"little real progress"，第二句中的"the overall condition of humanity"，以及第三句中的"the condition of humanity"。毫無疑問，戰爭、暴力以及貧窮仍然伴隨著我們，並且，作為人類，由於技術與通信的進步，我們可能比以往任何時候都更深切地意識到了這些問題。但除非將"progress"和"the condition of humanity"這樣的概念進行清晰界定，否則，上述陳述將是相當謬誤的。

首先，第一句中的"little real progress"必須予以界定。如果作者將"progress"定義為祓除死亡、戰爭、暴力以及貧窮，那麼或許可以這樣說，人類在過去的100多年中並未取得太大的進展。人們仍在不斷死亡，戰爭仍在進行，暴力幾乎到處存在，世界每個國家都有人生活於貧困之中。但是，如果"progress"這一術語並非被定義為對上述問題的消除，而是對這些問題的削減，那麼，過去一個世紀中人類確實取得了重大進步。由於醫學和對人體科學研究水平的提高，全世界幾乎每個國家中人類壽命都呈上升趨勢。戰爭與暴力，雖然仍然存在，卻已被減少，且在很大程度上都被限制在世界的某些地區，而再也不是像第一、第二次世界大戰那樣波及全球。隨著國際貿易在許多以前的貧窮國家導致了經濟改善，貧困也得以減輕。在過去的100年中，這些領域中已取得了極為真實的進步。其次，"the overall condition of humanity"以及"the condition of humanity"必須予以界定。如果這些術語指的是我們所有人仍然降生於痛苦之中，一生中蒙受著許多悲劇，並最終仍然死去，那麼，毫無疑問，人類的總體狀況絲毫不比100年或甚至10萬年之前來得更好。生活依然是生活，無論產生怎樣的技術創新，作為人類的一員，生活的某些基本事實依舊不變。如果該術語指的是我們是如何在被賦予的生存時間中得以生活的，那麼我們可以再一次說，人類在過去的世紀中取得了巨大的進步。對許多疾病，人類已找到了治癒方法，某些疾病已正式被徹底消除。對某些疾病的醫治已使這些病症變得不再那麼致命，不再那麼毀滅性。例如，在過去有可能死去的許多癌症患者，現在經治療之後可繼續舒服地生活下去，擺脫癌症的折磨。在過去可能會死去的糖尿病患者，現在也能過上幾乎正常的生活。即使視力障礙也能通過激光手術被有效去除。總體而言，人類狀況現在遠好於一個多世紀之前，這似乎應是不爭的事實。 如果從狹義上去理解"progress"和"the condition of humanity"，則人們可以甚為合理地說，人類在過去的一個多世紀中幾乎沒有取得任何進步。全球數以百萬計的人仍生活在貧困之中，愛滋病正在奪走無數人的生命，而治癒方法遙遙無期。戰爭與暴力在中東,非洲以及阿富汗持續不斷。然則，持此狹隘的觀點則有可能使人無視人類在過去一百年中業已取得的昭然若揭的巨大進步。隨著人類繼續邁進21世紀，較為可取的做法應該是，我們應充分意識到在過去100年中人類業已取得的全部成就，並展望人類在下一個世紀中所可能取得的未來進步，而不是對人類今日顯著改善的生存狀況視而不見，置若罔聞。