How to Speak and Write Correctly

SEQUENCE OF PERSON

Remember that the _first_ person takes precedence of the _second_ and the
_second_ takes precedence of the _third_. When Cardinal Wolsey said _Ego
et Rex_ (I and the King), he showed he was a good grammarian, but a bad
courtier.

AM COME--HAVE COME

"_I am come_" points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates that
I have just arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb _to be_
should be used in preference to the verb _to have_; as, "The box is come"
instead of "The box has come."

PAST TENSE--PAST PARTICIPLE

The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called _strong_
verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by careless speakers and
writers. To avoid mistakes it is requisite to know the principal parts of
these verbs, and this knowledge is very easy of acquirement, as there are
not more than a couple of hundred of such verbs, and of this number but a
small part is in daily use. Here are some of the most common blunders: "I
seen" for "I saw;" "I done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;"
"I begun" for "I began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I
sung" for "I sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove"
for "I have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for
"I have trodden;" "I have shook" for "I have shaken;" "I have fell" for
"I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have began" for "I
have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have rose" for "I have
risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I have broke" for "I have
broken." "It has froze" for "It has frozen." "It has blowed" for "It has
blown." "It has flowed" (of a bird) for "It has flown."

N. B.--The past tense and past participle of _To Hang_ is _hanged_ or
_hung_. When you are talking about a man meeting death on the gallows,
say "He was hanged"; when you are talking about the carcass of an animal
say, "It was hung," as "The beef was hung dry." Also say your coat "_was_
hung on a hook."

PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE

Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case. Don't say
"Between you and _I_"; say "Between you and _me_"

_Two_ prepositions should not govern _one objective_ unless there is an
immediate connection between them. "He was refused admission to and
forcibly ejected from the school" should be "He was refused admission to
the school and forcibly ejected from it."

SUMMON--SUMMONS

Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him." _Summon_ is a
verb, _summons_, a noun.

It is correct to say "I shall get a _summons_ for him," not a _summon_.


UNDENIABLE--UNEXCEPTIONABLE

"My brother has an undeniable character" is wrong if I wish to convey the
idea that he has a good character. The expression should be in that case
"My brother has an unexceptionable character." An _undeniable_ character
is a character that cannot be denied, whether bad or good. An
unexceptionable character is one to which no one can take exception.

THE PRONOUNS

Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I go"
should be "Let you and _me_ go." "Let them and we go" should be "Let them
and us go." The verb let is transitive and therefore takes the objective
case.

"Give me _them_ flowers" should be "Give me _those_ flowers"; "I mean
_them_ three" should be "I mean those three." Them is the objective case
of the personal pronoun and cannot be used adjectively like the
demonstrative adjective pronoun. "I am as strong as _him_" should be "I
am as strong as _he_"; "I am younger than _her_" should be "I am younger
than _she_;" "He can write better than _me_" should be "He can write
better than I," for in these examples the objective cases _him_, _her_
and _me_ are used wrongfully for the nominatives. After each of the
misapplied pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the
subject. Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)."
"He can write better than I (can)."

Don't say "_It is me_;" say "_It is I_" The verb _To Be_ of which is is a
part takes the same case after it that it has before it. This holds good
in all situations as well as with pronouns.

The verb _To Be_ also requires the pronouns joined to it to be in the
same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative _I_ requires the
nominative _who_ and the objectives _me_, _him_, _her_, _its_, _you_,
_them_, require the objective _whom_.

"_Whom_ do you think I am?" should be "_Who_ do you think I am?" and
"_Who_ do they suppose me to be?" should be "_Whom_ do they suppose me to
be?" The objective form of the Relative should be always used, in
connection with a preposition. "Who do you take me for?" should be
"_Whom_ do, etc." "Who did you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did
you give the apple to," but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition
should never end a sentence, therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did
you give the apple?"

After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns.
For "_He_ and _they_ we have seen," say "_Him_ and _them_ we have seen."

THAT FOR SO

"The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so painful."


THESE--THOSE

Don't say, _These kind; those sort_. _Kind_ and _sort_ are each singular
and require the singular pronouns _this_ and _that_. In connection with
these demonstrative adjective pronouns remember that _this_ and _these_
refer to what is near at hand, _that_ and _those_ to what is more
distant; as, _this book_ (near me), _that book_ (over there), _these_
boys (near), _those_ boys (at a distance).


THIS MUCH--THUS MUCH

"_This_ much is certain" should be "_Thus_ much or _so_ much is certain."

FLEE--FLY

These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The principal
parts of _flee_ are _flee_, _fled_, _fled_; those of _fly_ are _fly_,
_flew_, _flown_. _To flee_ is generally used in the meaning of getting
out of danger. _To fly_ means to soar as a bird. To say of a man "He _has
flown_ from the place" is wrong; it should be "He _has fled_ from the
place." We can say with propriety that "A bird has _flown_ from the
place."

THROUGH--THROUGHOUT

Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well known
throughout the land."

VOCATION AND AVOCATION

Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the employment,
business or profession one follows for a living; avocation is some
pursuit or occupation which diverts the person from such employment,
business or profession. Thus

"His vocation was the law, his avocation, farming."

WAS--WERE

In the subjunctive mood the plural form _were_ should be used with a
singular subject; as, "If I _were_," not _was_. Remember the plural form
of the personal pronoun _you_ always takes _were_, though it may denote
but one. Thus, "_You were_," never "_you was_." "_If I was him_" is a
very common expression. Note the two mistakes in it,--that of the verb
implying a condition, and that of the objective case of the pronoun. It
should read _If I were he_. This is another illustration of the rule
regarding the verb _To Be_, taking the same case after it as before it;
_were_ is part of the verb _To Be_, therefore as the nominative (I) goes
before it, the nominative (he) should come after it.

A OR AN

_A_ becomes an before a vowel or before _h_ mute for the sake of euphony
or agreeable sound to the ear. _An apple_, _an orange_, _an heir_, _an
honor_, etc.

CHAPTER IX

Diction--Purity--Propriety--Precision.

It is the object of every writer to put his thoughts into as effective
form as possible so as to make a good impression on the reader. A person
may have noble thoughts and ideas but be unable to express them in such a
way as to appeal to others, consequently he cannot exert the full force
of his intellectuality nor leave the imprint of his character upon his
time, whereas many a man but indifferently gifted may wield such a facile
pen as to attract attention and win for himself an envious place among
his contemporaries.

In everyday life one sees illustrations of men of excellent mentality
being cast aside and ones of mediocre or in some cases, little, if any,
ability chosen to fill important places. The former are unable to impress
their personality; they have great thoughts, great ideas, but these
thoughts and ideas are locked up in their brains and are like prisoners
behind the bars struggling to get free. The key of language which would
open the door is wanting, hence they have to remain locked up.

Many a man has to pass through the world unheard of and of little benefit
to it or himself, simply because he cannot bring out what is in him and
make it subservient to his will. It is the duty of every one to develop his
best, not only for the benefit of himself but for the good of his fellow
men. It is not at all necessary to have great learning or acquirements, the
laborer is as useful in his own place as the philosopher in his; nor is it
necessary to have many talents. One talent rightly used is much better than
ten wrongly used. Often a man can do more with one than his contemporary
can do with ten, often a man can make one dollar go farther than twenty in
the hands of his neighbor, often the poor man lives more comfortably than
the millionaire. All depends upon the individual himself. If he make right
use of what the Creator has given him and live according to the laws of God
and nature he is fulfilling his allotted place in the universal scheme of
creation, in other words, when he does his best, he is living up to the
standard of a useful manhood.

Now in order to do his best a man of ordinary intelligence and education
should be able to express himself correctly both in speaking and writing,
that is, he should be able to convey his thoughts in an intelligent
manner which the simplest can understand. The manner in which a speaker
or writer conveys his thoughts is known as his . In other words
__ may be defined as the peculiar manner in which a man expresses
his conceptions through the medium of language. It depends upon the
choice of words and their arrangement to convey a meaning. Scarcely any
two writers have exactly the same , that is to say, express their
ideas after the same peculiar form, just as no two mortals are fashioned
by nature in the same mould, so that one is an exact counterpart of the
other.

Just as men differ in the accent and tones of their voices, so do they
differ in the construction of their language.

Two reporters sent out on the same mission, say to report a fire, will
verbally differ in their accounts though materially both descriptions
will be the same as far as the leading facts are concerned. One will
express himself in a  _different_ from the other.

If you are asked to describe the dancing of a red-haired lady at the last
charity ball you can either say--"The ruby Circe, with the Titian locks
glowing like the oriflamme which surrounds the golden god of day as he
sinks to rest amid the crimson glory of the burnished West, gave a divine
exhibition of the Terpsichorean art which thrilled the souls of the
multitude" or, you can simply say--"The red-haired lady danced very well
and pleased the audience."

The former is a specimen of the ultra florid or bombastic  which may
be said to depend upon the pomposity of verbosity for its effect, the
latter is a specimen of simple _natural_ . Needless to say it is to
be preferred. The other should be avoided. It stamps the writer as a
person of shallowness, ignorance and inexperience. It has been eliminated
from the newspapers. Even the most flatulent of yellow sheets no longer
tolerate it in their columns. Affectation and pedantry in  are now
universally condemned.

It is the duty of every speaker and writer to labor after a pleasing
. It gains him an entrance where he would otherwise be debarred.
Often the interest of a subject depends as much on the way it is
presented as on the subject itself. One writer will make it attractive,
another repulsive. For instance take a passage in history. Treated by one
historian it is like a desiccated mummy, dry, dull, disgusting, while
under the spell of another it is, as it were, galvanized into a virile
living thing which not only pleases but captivates the reader.

DICTION

The first requisite of  is _choice_ of _words_, and this comes under
the head of _Diction_, the property of  which has reference to the
words and phrases used in speaking and writing. The secret of literary
skill from any standpoint consists in putting the right word in the right
place. In order to do this it is imperative to know the meaning of the
words we use, their exact literal meaning. Many synonymous words are
seemingly interchangeable and appear as if the same meaning were applicable
to three or four of them at the same time, but when all such words are
reduced to a final analysis it is clearly seen that there is a marked
difference in their meaning. For instance _grief_ and _sorrow_ seem to be
identical, but they are not. _Grief_ is active, _sorrow_ is more or less
passive; _grief_ is caused by troubles and misfortunes which come to us
from the outside, while _sorrow_ is often the consequence of our own
acts. _Grief_ is frequently loud and violent, _sorrow_ is always quiet
and retiring. _Grief_ shouts, _Sorrow_ remains calm.

If you are not sure of the exact meaning of a word look it up immediately
in the dictionary. Sometimes some of our great scholars are puzzled over
simple words in regard to meaning, spelling or pronunciation. Whenever
you meet a strange word note it down until you discover its meaning and
use. Read the best books you can get, books written by men and women who
are acknowledged masters of language, and study how they use their words,
where they place them in the sentences, and the meanings they convey to
the readers.

Mix in good society. Listen attentively to good talkers and try to
imitate their manner of expression. If a word is used you do not
understand, don't be ashamed to ask its meaning.

True, a small vocabulary will carry you through, but it is an advantage
to have a large one. When you live alone a little pot serves just as well
as a large one to cook your victuals and it is handy and convenient, but
when your friends or neighbors come to dine with you, you will need a
much larger pot and it is better to have it in store, so that you will
not be put to shame for your scantiness of furnishings.

Get as many words as you possibly can--if you don't need them now, pack
them away in the garrets of your brain so that you can call upon them if
you require them.

Keep a note book, jot down the words you don't understand or clearly
understand and consult the dictionary when you get time.

PURITY

_Purity_ of  consists in using words which are reputable, national
and present, which means that the words are in current use by the best
authorities, that they are used throughout the nation and not confined to
one particular part, and that they are words in constant use at the
present time.

There are two guiding principles in the choice of words,--_good use_
and _good taste_. _Good use_ tells us whether a word is right or wrong;
_good taste_, whether it is adapted to our purpose or not.

A word that is obsolete or too new to have gained a place in the
language, or that is a provincialism, should not be used.

Here are the Ten Commandments of English :

(1) Do not use foreign words.

(2) Do not use a long word when a short one will serve your purpose.
_Fire_ is much better than _conflagration_.

(3) Do not use technical words, or those understood only by specialists
in their respective lines, except when you are writing especially for
such people.

(4) Do not use slang.

(5) Do not use provincialisms, as "I guess" for "I think"; "I reckon" for
"I know," etc.

(6) Do not in writing prose, use poetical or antiquated words: as "lore,
e'er, morn, yea, nay, verily, peradventure."

(7) Do not use trite and hackneyed words and expressions; as, "on the
job," "up and in"; "down and out."

(8) Do not use newspaper words which have not established a place in the
language as "to bugle"; "to suicide," etc.

(9) Do not use ungrammatical words and forms; as, "I ain't;" "he don't."

(10) Do not use ambiguous words or phrases; as--"He showed me all about
the house."

Trite words, similes and metaphors which have become hackneyed and worn
out should be allowed to rest in the oblivion of past usage. Such
expressions and phrases as "Sweet sixteen" "the Almighty dollar," "Uncle
Sam," "On the fence," "The Glorious Fourth," "Young America," "The lords
of creation," "The rising generation," "The weaker sex," "The weaker
vessel," "Sweetness long drawn out" and "chief cook and bottle washer,"
should be put on the shelf as they are utterly worn out from too much
usage.

Some of the old similes which have outlived their usefulness and should
be pensioned off, are "Sweet as sugar," "Bold as a lion," "Strong as an
ox," "Quick as a flash," "Cold as ice," "Stiff as a poker," "White as
snow," "Busy as a bee," "ale as a ghost," "Rich as Croesus," "Cross as a
bear" and a great many more far too numerous to mention.

Be as original as possible in the use of expression. Don't follow in the
old rut but try and strike out for yourself. This does not mean that you
should try to set the , or do anything outlandish or out of the way,
or be an innovator on the prevailing custom. In order to be original
there is no necessity for you to introduce something novel or establish a
precedent. The probability is you are not fit to do either, by education
or talent. While following the  of those who are acknowledged
leaders you can be original in your language. Try and clothe an idea
different from what it has been clothed and better. If you are speaking
or writing of dancing don't talk or write about "tripping the light
fantastic toe." It is over two hundred years since Milton expressed it
that way in "_L'Allegro_." You're not a Milton and besides over a million
have stolen it from Milton until it is now no longer worth stealing.

Don't resurrect obsolete words such as _whilom_, _yclept_, _wis_, etc.,
and be careful in regard to obsolescent words, that is, words that are at
the present time gradually passing from use such as _quoth, trow,
betwixt, amongst, froward_, etc.

And beware of new words. Be original in the construction and arrangement
of your language, but don't try to originate words. Leave that to the
Masters of language, and don't be the first to try such words, wait until
the chemists of speech have tested them and passed upon their merits.

Quintilian said--"refer the oldest of the new and the newest of the
old." Pope put this in rhyme and it still holds good:

In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too
new or old: Be not the first by whom the new are tried, Nor yet the last
to lay the old aside.

PROPRIETY

_Propriety_ of  consists in using words in their proper sense and as
in the case of purity, good usage is the principal test. Many words have
acquired in actual use a meaning very different from what they once
possessed. "revent" formerly meant to go before, and that meaning is
implied in its Latin derivation. Now it means to put a stop to, to
hinder. To attain propriety of  it is necessary to avoid confounding
words derived from the same root; as _respectfully_ and _respectively_;
it is necessary to use words in their accepted sense or the sense which
everyday use sanctions.

SIMPLICITY

_Simplicity_ of  has reference to the choice of simple words and
their unaffected presentation. Simple words should always be used in
preference to compound, and complicated ones when they express the same
or almost the same meaning. The Anglo-Saxon element in our language
comprises the simple words which express the relations of everyday life,
strong, terse, vigorous, the language of the fireside, street, market and
farm. It is this  which characterizes the Bible and many of the
great English classics such as the "ilgrim's Progress," "Robinson
Crusoe," and "Gulliver's Travels."

CLEARNESS

_Clearness_ of  should be one of the leading considerations with the
beginner in composition. He must avoid all obscurity and ambiguous
phrases. If he write a sentence or phrase and see that a meaning might be
inferred from it otherwise than intended, he should re-write it in such a
way that there can be no possible doubt. Words, phrases or clauses that
are closely related should be placed as near to each other as possible
that their mutual relation may clearly appear, and no word should be
omitted that is necessary to the complete expression of thought.

UNITY

_Unity_ is that property of  which keeps all parts of a sentence in
connection with the principal thought and logically subordinate to it. A
sentence may be constructed as to suggest the idea of oneness to the
mind, or it may be so loosely put together as to produce a confused and
indefinite impression. Ideas that have but little connection should be
expressed in separate sentences, and not crowded into one.

Keep long parentheses out of the middle of your sentences and when you
have apparently brought your sentences to a close don't try to continue
the thought or idea by adding supplementary clauses.

STRENGTH

_Strength_ is that property of  which gives animation, energy and
vivacity to language and sustains the interest of the reader. It is as
necessary to language as good food is to the body. Without it the words
are weak and feeble and create little or no impression on the mind. In
order to have strength the language must be concise, that is, much
expressed in little compass, you must hit the nail fairly on the head and
drive it in straight. Go critically over what you write and strike out
every word, phrase and clause the omission of which impairs neither the
clearness nor force of the sentence and so avoid redundancy, tautology
and circumlocution. Give the most important words the most prominent
places, which, as has been pointed out elsewhere, are the beginning and
end of the sentence.