How to Speak and Write Correctly

CHAPTER III

THE SENTENCE

Different Kinds--Arrangement of Words--Paragraph


A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a determinate
sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete thought or idea.
No matter how short, it must contain one finite verb and a subject or agent
to direct the action of the verb.

"Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"--are sentences.

A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and something
said about it. The word or words indicating what is spoken about form what
is called the _subject_ and the word or words indicating what is said about
it form what is called the _predicate_.

In the sentences given, _birds_, _fish_ and _men_ are the subjects, while
_fly_, _swim_ and _walk_ are the predicates.

There are three kinds of sentences, _simple_, _compound_ and _complex_.

The _simple sentence_ expresses a single thought and consists of one
subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal."

A _compound sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences of equal
importance the parts of which are either expressed or understood, as,
"The men work in the fields and the women work in the household," or "The
men work in the fields and the women in the household" or "The men and
women work in the fields and in the household."

A _complex sentence_ consists of two or more simple sentences so combined
that one depends on the other to complete its meaning; as; "When he
returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the words, "when he returns"
are dependent on the rest of the sentence for their meaning.

A _clause_ is a separate part of a complex sentence, as "when he returns"
in the last example.

A _phrase_ consists of two or more words without a finite verb.

Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an idea,
therefore we can have no sentence.

Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the verb
cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a sentence, for it
is not a complete action expressed. When we hear such an expression as "A
dog running along the street," we wait for something more to be added,
something more affirmed about the dog, whether he bit or barked or fell
dead or was run over.

Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the subject.

When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot happen
without affecting something, the thing affected is called the _object_.

Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected Abel. In
"The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the catching.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE

Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement is
subject--verb--object. In many cases no other form is possible. Thus in
the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we cannot reverse it and say
"The mouse has caught a cat" without destroying the meaning, and in any
other form of arrangement, such as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel
that while it is intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact
and one which jars upon us more or less.

In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than what are
barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have greater freedom of
arrangement and can so place the words as to give the best effect. The
proper placing of words depends upon perspicuity and precision. These two
combined give __ to the structure.

Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal _Elegy_--"The
ploughman homeward plods his weary way." This line can be paraphrased to
read 18 different ways. Here are a few variations:

[INDENT]  Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way.
  The ploughman plods his weary way homeward.
  Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way.
  His weary way the ploughman homeward plods.
  Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman.
  Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward.
  His weary way the ploughman plods homeward.
  His weary way homeward the ploughman plods.
  The ploughman plods homeward his weary way.
  The ploughman his weary way plods homeward.[/INDENT]
and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior to the
one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to comply with
the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the variations depend upon the
emphasis we wish to place upon the different words.

In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not lose sight
of the fact that the beginning and end are the important places for
catching the attention of the reader. Words in these places have greater
emphasis than elsewhere.

In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary ploughman is
plodding his way homeward, but according to the arrangement a very slight
difference is effected in the idea. Some of the variations make us think
more of the ploughman, others more of the plodding, and still others more
of the weariness.

As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important places, it
naturally follows that small or insignificant words should be kept from
these positions. Of the two places the end one is the more important,
therefore, it really calls for the most important word in the sentence.
Never commence a sentence with _And_, _But_, _Since_, _Because_, and
other similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak
adverbs or pronouns.

The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with one another
in meaning should be closely connected in order also. By ignoring this
principle many sentences are made, if not nonsensical, really ridiculous
and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten dollars reward is offered for
information of any person injuring this property by order of the owner."
"This monument was erected to the memory of John Jones, who was shot by
his affectionate brother."

In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must be
inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement of
certain words, must be obeyed.

(1) The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have,"
"Thou hast," (the pronoun _thou_ is here used to illustrate the verb
form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the variation of the
verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject calls for a singular
verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the plural; as, "The boy
writes," "The boys write."

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE (2)

The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by confusing
(1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English nouns; (3)
compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent subjects.

[INDENT]  (1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or things
  regarded as a whole; as, _class regiment_. When the individuals
  or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural verb;
  as The class _were_ distinguished for ability. When the idea of
  the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a singular
  verb; as The regiment _was_ in camp. (2) It is sometimes hard
  for the ordinary individual to distinguish the plural from the
  singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be careful in
  the selection of the verb. He should look up the word and be
  guided accordingly. "He was an _alumnus_ of Harvard." "They
  were _alumni_ of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one verb
  has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected
  by _and_, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain _are_
  disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing and are
  connected by _or_ the verb should be singular; as, "The man or
  the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more than
  one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with the
  most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, _is_ wrong."
  "Whether he or I _am_ to be blamed."[/INDENT]

(2) Never use the past participle for the past tense nor _vice versa_.
This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear "He done it" for
"He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of broken. "He would have went"
for "He would have gone," etc.

(3) The use of the verbs _shall_ and _will_ is a rock upon which even
the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged recklessly.
Their significance changes according as they are used with the first,
second or third person. With the first person _shall_ is used in direct
statement to express a simple future action; as, "I shall go to the
city to-morrow." With the second and third persons _shall_ is used to
express a determination; as, "You _shall_ go to the city to-morrow,"
"He _shall_ go to the city to-morrow."

With the first person _will_ is used in direct statement to express
determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With the second and
third persons _will_ is used to express simple future action; as, "You
_will_ go to the city to-morrow," "He _will_ go to the city to-morrow."

A very old rule regarding the uses of _shall_ and _will_ is thus
expressed in rhyme:

[INDENT]  In the first person simply _shall_ foretells,
  In _will_ a threat or else a promise dwells.
  _Shall_ in the second and third does threat,
  _Will_ simply then foretells the future feat.[/INDENT]

(4) Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and objective
case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the ancient distinctive
case ending for the objective. Remember that the objective case follows
transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't say "The boy who I sent to see
you," but "The boy whom I sent to see you." _Whom_ is here the object of
the transitive verb sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She
bowed to him and me" since me is the objective case following the
preposition _to_ understood. "Between you and I" is a very common
expression. It should be "Between you and me" since _between_ is a
preposition calling for the objective case.

(5) Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns _who_, _which_ and
_that_. Who refers only to persons; which only to things; as, "The boy
who was drowned," "The umbrella which I lost." The relative _that_ may
refer to both persons and things; as, "The man _that_ I saw." "The hat
_that_ I bought."

(6) Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the comparative;
as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the richer of the two."
Other mistakes often made in this connection are (1) Using the double
comparative and superlative; as, "These apples are much _more_ preferable."
"The most universal motive to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects
which belong to dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer _life_ than a
_teacher_." (3) Including objects in class to which they do not belong;
as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding an object from a
class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was braver than any ancient
warrior."

(7) Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an adjective.
Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted nicely toward me,"
and instead of saying "She looked _beautifully_" say "She looked
_beautiful_."

(8) Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies. Instead
of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked quickly to the
door."

(9) Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and
objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in their use.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE (3)

The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is well
illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy Williams, a comic
actor who thus narrates his experience in riding a horse owned by
Hamblin, the manager:

"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man to put
the saddle on him."

"On Tom Flynn?"

"No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I mounted
him."

"What! mounted Tom Flynn?"

"No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode off."

"Shook hands with the horse, Billy?"

"No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who should
I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to hold him by
the head."

"What! hold Hamblin by the head?"

"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together."

"What! you and the horse?"

"No, _me_ and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again and went out
of town."

"What! mounted Hamblin again?"

"No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there but Tom
Flynn,--he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of me; so I told
the hostler to tie him up."

"Tie Tom Flynn up?"

"No, the horse; and we had a drink there."

"What! you and the horse?"

"No, me and Tom Flynn."

Finding his auditors by this time in a _horse_ laugh, Billy wound up
with: "Now, look here,--every time I say horse, you say Hamblin, and
every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be hanged if I tell you
any more about it."

SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

There are two great classes of sentences according to the general
principles upon which they are founded. These are termed the _loose_ and
the _periodic_.

In the _loose_ sentence the main idea is put first, and then follow
several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author particularly
noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a leading declaration
to which he adds several attendant connections. For instance in the
opening of the story of _Robinson Crusoe_ we read: "I was born in the
year 1632 in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that
country, my father being a foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at
Hull; he got a good estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade
lived afterward at York, from whence he had married my mother, whose
relations were named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from
I was called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in
England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our name
Crusoe, and so my companions always called me."

In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is preceded by a
series of relative introductions. This kind of sentence is often
introduced by such words as _that_, _if_, _since_, _because_. The
following is an example:

"That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should have
been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a beggar on
the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly been the
recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation."

On account of its name many are liable to think the _loose_ sentence an
undesirable form in good composition, but this should not be taken for
granted. In many cases it is preferable to the periodic form.

As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the _loose_ form is
to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic is employed in discourse
the listeners are apt to forget the introductory clauses before the final
issue is reached.

Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the _loose_,
which makes the direct statement at the beginning, should predominate.

As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the
composition.

However the general rule may be laid down that short sentences are
preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best writers of the present
day is towards short, snappy, pithy sentences which rivet the attention of
the reader. They adopt as their motto _multum in parvo_ (much in little)
and endeavor to pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of
brevity is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too
brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has its place
and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument and often is very
necessary to description and also in introducing general principles which
require elaboration. In employing the long sentence the inexperienced
writer should not strain after the heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and
Carlyle used such a type, but remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the
sledge hammer of a giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and
few can hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in
composition should never seek after the heavy . The best of all
authors in the English language for  is Addison. Macaulay says: "If
you wish a  learned, but not pedantic, elegant but not ostentatious,
simple yet refined, you must give your days and nights to the volumes of
Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart from the beauty of Addison's
writings causes us to reiterate the literary command--"Never use a big word
when a little one will convey the same or a similar meaning."

Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a clear
brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which you can see
and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is another writer whose
simplicity of  charms.

The beginner should study these writers, make their works his _vade mecum_,
they have stood the test of time and there has been no improvement upon
them yet, nor is there likely to be, for their writing is as perfect as
it is possible to be in the English language.

Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed rules for
the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow the best authors
and these masters of language will guide you safely along the way.

THE PARAGRAPH

The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are closely
related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not only do they
preserve the sequence of the different parts into which a composition is
divided, but they give a certain spice to the matter like raisins in a
plum pudding. A solid page of printed matter is distasteful to the reader;
it taxes the eye and tends towards the weariness of monotony, but when it
is broken up into sections it loses much of its heaviness and the
consequent lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader.

Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow river, which
enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one to the other until
he gets across; but if the stones are placed too far apart in attempting
to span the distance one is liable to miss the mark and fall in the water
and flounder about until he is again able to get a foothold. 'Tis the
same with written language, the reader by means of paragraphs can easily
pass from one portion of connected thought to another and keep up his
interest in the subject until he gets to the end.

Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard to the
matter under consideration,--a sentence dependency. For instance, in the
same paragraph we must not speak of a house on fire and a runaway horse
unless there is some connection between the two. We must not write
consecutively:

"The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater part of the
large building in a short time." "The horse took fright and wildly dashed
down the street scattering pedestrians in all directions." These two
sentences have no connection and therefore should occupy separate and
distinct places. But when we say--"The fire raged with fierce intensity
consuming the greater part of the large building in a short time and the
horse taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street scattering
pedestrians in all directions,"--there is a natural sequence, viz., the
horse taking fright as a consequence of the flames and hence the two
expressions are combined in one paragraph.

As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places in a
paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first sentence
and the last should by virtue of their structure and nervous force,
compel the reader's attention. It is usually advisable to make the first
sentence short; the last sentence may be long or short, but in either
case should be forcible. The object of the first sentence is to state a
point _clearly_; the last sentence should _enforce_ it.

It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the paragraph a
restatement or counterpart or application of the opening.

In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of the
principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as a nucleus
and around it constructed the different parts of the paragraph. Anyone
can make a context for every simple sentence by asking himself questions
in reference to the sentence. Thus--"The foreman gave the order"--
suggests at once several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he
give it?" "why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These
questions when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an
elaboration of it into a complete paragraph.

If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a number of
items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or enforce the general
thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the transition from each item
to the next is easy, natural and obvious; the items seem to come of
themselves. If, on the other hand, we detect in a paragraph one or more
items which have no direct bearing, or if we are unable to proceed
readily from item to item, especially if we are obliged to rearrange the
items before we can perceive their full significance, then we are
justified in pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty.

No specific rules can be given as to the construction of paragraphs. The
best advice is,--Study closely the paragraph structure of the best
writers, for it is only through imitation, conscious or unconscious of
the best models, that one can master the art.

The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is Macaulay,
the best model to follow for the oratorical  is Edmund Burke and for
description and narration probably the greatest master of paragraph is
the American Goldsmith, Washington Irving.

A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the indentation of
the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the left margin.

Above: A photograph of Joseph Devlin, M P
(Taken from frontispiece of E Phoenix, Northern Nationalism, Nationalist Politics,
Partition and the Catholic Minority in Northern Ireland, 1890-1940,
Ulster Historical Foundation, Belfast, 1994)[/FONT]

Above: A portrait of Joseph Devlin, M P
(Taken from the front cover of E Phoenix, Northern Nationalism, Nationalist Politics,
Partition and the Catholic Minority in Northern Ireland, 1890-1940,
Ulster Historical Foundation, Belfast, 1994)[/FONT]

CHAPTER IV

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Figures of Speech--Definitions and Examples--Use of Figures


In _Figurative Language_ we employ words in such a way that they differ
somewhat from their ordinary signification in commonplace speech and
convey our meaning in a more vivid and impressive manner than when we use
them in their every-day sense. Figures make speech more effective, they
beautify and emphasize it and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt
does to food; besides they add energy and force to expression so that it
irresistibly compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of
figures, viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a
word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3) Figures
of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4) Figures of
Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively which change the
mode of thought.

We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the most
important, really giving to language the construction and  which
make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of ideas.

Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some authorities
extending the list to a useless length. The fact is that any form of
expression which conveys thought may be classified as a Figure.

The principal figures as well as the most important and those oftenest
used are, _Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Synechdoche,
Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision, Antithesis, Climax,
Epigram, Interrogation_ and _Irony_.

The first four are founded on _resemblance_, the second six on _contiguity_
and the third five, on _contrast_.

A _Simile_ (from the Latin _similis_, like), is the likening of one thing
to another, a statement of the resemblance of objects, acts, or relations;
as "In his awful anger he was _like_ the storm-driven waves dashing
against the rock." A simile makes the principal object plainer and
impresses it more forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to
receive impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the
leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner. Contrast
it with the simple statement--"His memory is good." Sometimes _Simile_ is
prostituted to a low and degrading use; as "His face was like a danger
signal in a fog storm." "Her hair was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He
was to his lady love as a poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is
never permissible. Mere _likeness_, it should be remembered, does not
constitute a simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is
compared to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the
objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old _trite_
similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were played out long
ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't say--"Her head was
glowing as the glorious god of day when he sets in a flambeau of splendor
behind the purple-tinted hills of the West." It is much better to do
without such a simile and simply say--"She had fiery red hair."

A _Metaphor_ (from the Greek _metapherein_, to carry over or transfer),
is a word used to _imply_ a resemblance but instead of likening one
object to another as in the _simile_ we directly substitute the action or
operation of one for another. If, of a religious man we say,--"He is as a
great pillar upholding the church," the expression is a _simile_, but if
we say--"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a metaphor. The
metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the simile. It is more
like a picture and hence, the graphic use of metaphor is called
"word-painting." It enables us to give to the most abstract ideas form,
color and life. Our language is full of metaphors, and we very often use
them quite unconsciously. For instance, when we speak of the _bed_ of a
river, the _shoulder_ of a hill, the _foot_ of a mountain, the _hands_ of
a clock, the _key_ of a situation, we are using metaphors.

Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in relation to the
same subject: "Since it was launched our project has met with much
opposition, but while its flight has not reached the heights ambitioned, we
are yet sanguine we shall drive it to success." Here our project begins as
a _ship_, then becomes a _bird_ and finally winds up as a _horse_.

_Personification_ (from the Latin _persona_, person, and _facere_, to make)
is the treating of an inanimate object as if it were animate and is
probably the most beautiful and effective of all the figures.

"The mountains _sing_ together, the hills _rejoice_ and _clap_ their
hands."

  "Earth _felt_ the wound; and Nature from her seat,
  _Sighing_, through all her works, gave signs of woe."

Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is adapted
especially to poetical composition. It has two distinguishable forms:
(1) when personality is ascribed to the inanimate as in the foregoing
examples, and (2) when some quality of life is attributed to the
inanimate; as, a _raging_ storm; an _angry_ sea; a _whistling_ wind, etc.

An _Allegory_ (from the Greek _allos_, other, and _agoreuein_, to speak),
is a form of expression in which the words are symbolical of something.
It is very closely allied to the metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor.

_Allegory_, _metaphor_ and _simile_ have three points in common,--they
are all founded on resemblance. "Ireland is like a thorn in the side of
England;" this is simile. "Ireland _is_ a thorn in the side of England;"
this is metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived
on an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little
girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl could be
useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her subservient to
his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey, then he resorted to
very harsh measures with the little girl, but she still remained obstinate
and obdurate. He continued to oppress her until finally she rebelled and
became as a thorn in his side to prick him for his evil attitude towards
her;" this is an allegory in which the giant plainly represents England
and the little girl, Ireland; the implication is manifest though no
mention is made of either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory
in the English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant
man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "ilgrim's Progress,"
Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the best allegory ever
penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen" by Edmund Spenser.

_Synecdoche_ (from the Greek, _sun_ with, and _ekdexesthai_, to receive),
is a figure of speech which expresses either more or less than it literally
denotes. By it we give to an object a name which literally expresses
something more or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the
world when we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose
the world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for a
part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a part is
used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle," "One of his _hands_
was assassinated," meaning one of his men. "Twenty _sail_ came into the
harbor," meaning twenty ships. "This is a fine marble," meaning a marble
statue.

_Metonymy_ (from the Greek _meta_, change, and _onyma_, a name) is the
designation of an object by one of its accompaniments, in other words, it
is a figure by which the name of one object is put for another when the
two are so related that the mention of one readily suggests the other.
Thus when we say of a drunkard--"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that
he loves the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to
contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1) when
an effect is put for cause or _vice versa_: as "_Gray hairs_ should be
respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine hand," that is, handwriting.
(2) when the _sign_ is put for the _thing signified_; as, "The pen is
mightier than the sword," meaning literary power is superior to military
force. (3) When the _container_ is put for the thing contained; as "The
_House_ was called to order," meaning the members in the House.

_Exclamation_ (from the Latin _ex_, out, and _clamare_, to cry), is a
figure by which the speaker instead of stating a fact, simply utters an
expression of surprise or emotion. For instance when he hears some
harrowing tale of woe or misfortune instead of saying,--"It is a sad
story" he exclaims "What a sad story!"

Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling, though it
is also applied to written forms which are intended to express emotion.
Thus in describing a towering mountain we can write "Heavens, what a
piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic! how sublime! how awe-inspiring
in its colossal impressiveness!" This figure rather belongs to poetry and
animated oratory than to the cold prose of every-day conversation and
writing.

_Hyperbole_ (from the Greek _hyper_, beyond, and _ballein_, to throw), is
an exaggerated form of statement and simply consists in representing
things to be either greater or less, better or worse than they really
are. Its object is to make the thought more effective by overstating it.
Here are some examples:--"He was so tall his head touched the clouds."
"He was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have
blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We are
all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not stop there,
but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying. There should be a
limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and writing it should be well
qualified and kept within reasonable bounds.

An _Apostrophe_ (from the Greek _apo_, from, and _strephein_, to turn),
is a direct address to the absent as present, to the inanimate as living,
or to the abstract as personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father
of our Country! Could you visit us now!"

  "My Country tis of thee--
   Sweet land of liberty,
   Of thee I sing."

"O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!" This
figure is very closely allied to Personification.

_Vision_ (from the Latin _videre_, to see) consists in treating the past,
the future, or the remote as if present in time or place. It is appropriate
to animated description, as it produces the effect of an ideal presence.
"The old warrior looks down from the canvas and tells us to be men worthy
of our sires."

This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of Revelation is a
vision of the future. The author who uses the figure most is Carlyle.

An _Antithesis_ (from the Greek _anti_, against, and _tithenai_, to set)
is founded on contrast; it consists in putting two unlike things in such
a position that each will appear more striking by the contrast.

  "Ring out the old, ring in the new,
   Ring out the false, ring in the true."

"Let us be _friends_ in peace, but _enemies_ in war."

Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam engine--"It can
engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate metal before it; draw out,
without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer; and lift up a ship of
war like a bauble in the air; it can embroider muslin and forge anchors;
cut steel into ribands, and impel loaded vessels against the fury of
winds and waves."

_Climax_ (from the Greek, _klimax_, a ladder), is an arrangement of
thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which gets stronger and more
impressive until the last one, which emphasizes the force of all the
preceding ones. "He risked truth, he risked honor, he risked fame, he
risked all that men hold dear,--yea, he risked life itself, and for
what?--for a creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he
was his better self."

_Epigram_ (from the Greek _epi_, upon, and _graphein_, to write),
originally meant an inscription on a monument, hence it came to signify
any pointed expression. It now means a statement or any brief saying in
prose or poetry in which there is an apparent contradiction; as,
"Conspicuous for his absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned."
"He was too foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could
not spare the money."

_Interrogation_ (from the Latin _interrogatio_, a question), is a figure
of speech in which an assertion is made by asking a question; as, "Does
God not show justice to all?" "Is he not doing right in his course?"
"What can a man do under the circumstances?"

_Irony_ (from the Greek _eironcia_, dissimulation) is a form of expression
in which the opposite is substituted for what is intended, with the end in
view, that the falsity or absurdity may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold
was an _honorable_ man." "A Judas Iscariot never _betrays_ a friend." "You
can always _depend_ upon the word of a liar."

Irony is cousin germain to _ridicule_, _derision_, _mockery_, _satire_
and _sarcasm_. _Ridicule_ implies laughter mingled with contempt;
_derision_ is ridicule from a personal feeling of hostility; _mockery_ is
insulting derision; _satire_ is witty mockery; _sarcasm_ is bitter satire
and _irony_ is disguised satire.

There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to language
and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning different from
their ordinary signification in common every-day speech and writing. The
golden rule for all is to _keep them in harmony with the character and
purpose of speech and composition_.

Source: Manybooks.net (for free download in selected format)

Reviews (3 stars)
2005.04.04
Jason Katsanis

Interesting for historical value, but a poor choice for someone learning the art of composition today. While it is unlikely that anyone following the advice given in this work will be marked down for grammatical errors, they may get marked down for being too dry or wooden if they were to follow Mr. Devlin's advice too closely.

His persistant use of "viz." would be considered archaic by most American readers, as would his inclusion of "shall" as a helping verb.

I have tried unsuccessfully to determine when this book was written, but it reads as though it were written about 50 or 70 years ago, which is why I found out fascinating from an historical point of view.

已讀！

hello ecore, haven't seen you for ages!

CHAPTER V

PUNCTUATION

Principal Points--Illustrations--Capital Letters.


Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for punctuation,
but most of them have been broken long since and thrown into the junk-heap
of disuse. They were too rigid, too strict, went so much into _minutiae_,
that they were more or less impractical to apply to ordinary composition.
The manner of language, of  and of expression has considerably
changed since then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden
meanings has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or
long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the aim is
toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore, punctuation has been
greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed, that it is now as much a
matter of good taste and judgment as adherence to any fixed set of rules.
Nevertheless there are laws governing it which cannot be abrogated, their
principles must be rigidly and inviolably observed.

The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and
the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses
made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a
passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless,
several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force
of expression.

The principal marks of punctuation are:

1. The Comma [,]

2. The Semicolon [;]

3. The Colon [:]

4. The Period [.]

5. The Interrogation [?]

6. The Exclamation [!]

7. The Dash [--]

8. The Parenthesis [()]

9. The Quotation [" "]

There are several other points or marks to indicate various relations,
but properly speaking such come under the heading of Printer's Marks,
some of which are treated elsewhere.

Of the above, the first four may be d the grammatical points, and
the remaining five, the rhetorical points.

The _Comma_: The office of the Comma is to show the slightest separation
which calls for punctuation at all. It should be omitted whenever
possible. It is used to mark the least divisions of a sentence.

(1) A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:--
"Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave,
daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs,
commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, black
and white, Christian and Jew, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through
the same gate."

(2) A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who
said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'"

(3) When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma
is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I
love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a
sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian."

(4) An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas: "The
old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk."

(5) Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the President,
was assassinated."

(6) Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book,
which is the simplest, is often the most profound."

(7) In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma:
"Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains, drives
the engines of our mills and factories."

(8) When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great
statesman; Grant, a great soldier."

(9) The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a good
man."

(10) In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures:
"Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000 dollars."

The _Semicolon_ marks a slighter connection than the comma. It is
generally confined to separating the parts of compound sentences. It is
much used in contrasts:

(1) "Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a man."

(2) The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in
which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that
of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her
statesmen; the power of America upon the strength of her army and navy."

(4) The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce
particulars or specifications following after, such as, _namely, as,
e.g., vid., i.e., etc._: "He had three defects; namely, carelessness,
lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a
portion of land entirely surrounded by water; as Cuba." "The names of
cities should always commence with a capital letter; _e.g._, New York,
Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics."
"No man is perfect; i.e., free from all blemish."

The _Colon_ except in conventional uses is practically obsolete.

(1) It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long
quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows:"

(2) It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject
under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term:"

(3) A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a
colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:"

(4) The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or
subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction
_or_ is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of Sound."

(5) It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir: My
dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this connection a dash very
often follows the colon.

(6) It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things
already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were:
firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand,
thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside."

The _Period_ is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply used to mark
the end of a complete sentence that is neither interrogative nor
exclamatory.

(1) After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly."
"lants grow." "Man is mortal."

(2) In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C.
Alexander, D.D., L.L.D.

(3) A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the
book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: _American
Trails_. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner Company.

The _Mark of Interrogation_ is used to ask or suggest a question.

(1) Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected,
should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard of
Napoleon?"

(2) When several questions have a common dependence they should be
followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where
now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the
winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved?"

(3) The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (?)
Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for Ireland."

The _Exclamation_ point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose.
Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind.

(1) It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as
interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape!"

(2) Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge,
Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!"

(3) When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be
used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!"