How to Speak and Write Correctly

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Title: How to Speak and Write Correctly

Author: Joseph Devlin

Release Date: September, 2004 [EBook #6409]
[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
[This file was first posted on December 8, 2002]
[Date last updated: May 2, 2006]

Edition: 10
Language: English
Character set encoding: ASCII

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE ***

Produced by Tom Allen, Charles Franks
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.

HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE CORRECTLY

By JOSEPH DEVLIN, M.A.
Edited by THEODORE WATERS
THE CHRISTIAN HERALD BIBLE HOUSE NEW YORK
[COLOR="Blue"]Copyright, 1910[/COLOR], by THE CHRISTIAN HERALD NEW YORK[/COLOR][/FONT]



[INDENT]CONTENTS

CHAPTER I REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH
Vocabulary. Parts of speech. Requisites.

CHAPTER II ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Divisions of grammar. Definitions. Etymology.

CHAPTER III THE SENTENCE
Different kinds. Arrangement of words. Paragraph.

CHAPTER IV FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figures of speech. Definitions and examples. Use of figures.

CHAPTER V PUNCTUATION
Principal points. Illustrations. Capital letters.

CHAPTER VI LETTER WRITING
Principles of letter writing. Forms. Notes.

CHAPTER VII ERRORS
Mistakes. Slips of authors. Examples and corrections. Errors of redundancy.

CHAPTER VIII PITFALLS TO AVOID
Common stumbling blocks. Peculiar constructions. Misused forms.

CHAPTER IX
Diction. Purity. Propriety. Precision.

CHAPTER X SUGGESTIONS
How to write. What to write. Correct speaking and speakers.

CHAPTER XI SLANG
Origin. American slang. Foreign slang.

CHAPTER XII WRITING FOR NEWSPAPERS
Qualification. Appropriate subjects. Directions.

CHAPTER XIII CHOICE OF WORDS
Small words. Their importance. The Anglo-Saxon element.

CHAPTER XIV ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Beginning. Different Sources. The present.

CHAPTER XV MASTERS AND MASTERPIECES OF LITERATURE
Great authors. Classification. The world's best books.[/INDENT]

INTRODUCTION

In the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one end in
view, viz.: To make it serviceable for those for whom it is intended,
that is, for those who have neither the time nor the opportunity, the
learning nor the inclination, to peruse elaborate and abstruse treatises
on Rhetoric, Grammar, and Composition. To them such works are as gold
enclosed in chests of steel and locked beyond power of opening. This book
has no pretension about it whatever,--it is neither a Manual of Rhetoric,
expatiating on the dogmas of , nor a Grammar full of arbitrary rules
and exceptions. It is merely an effort to help ordinary, everyday people
to express themselves in ordinary, everyday language, in a proper manner.
Some broad rules are laid down, the observance of which will enable the
reader to keep within the pale of propriety in oral and written language.
Many idiomatic words and expressions, peculiar to the language, have been
given, besides which a number of the common mistakes and pitfalls have
been placed before the reader so that he may know and avoid them.

The writer has to acknowledge his indebtedness to no one in _particular_,
but to all in _general_ who have ever written on the subject.

The little book goes forth--a finger-post on the road of language
pointing in the right direction. It is hoped that they who go according
to its index will arrive at the goal of correct speaking and writing.

CHAPTER I

REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH

Vocabulary--Parts of Speech--Requisites


It is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly, as for all
purposes of ordinary conversation and communication, only about 2,000
different words are required. The mastery of just twenty hundred words,
the knowing where to place them, will make us not masters of the English
language, but masters of correct speaking and writing. Small number, you
will say, compared with what is in the dictionary! But nobody ever uses
all the words in the dictionary or could use them did he live to be the
age of Methuselah, and there is no necessity for using them.

There are upwards of 200,000 words in the recent editions of the large
dictionaries, but the one-hundredth part of this number will suffice for
all your wants. Of course you may think not, and you may not be content
to call things by their common names; you may be ambitious to show
superiority over others and display your learning or, rather, your
pedantry and lack of learning. For instance, you may not want to call a
spade a spade. You may prefer to call it a spatulous device for abrading
the surface of the soil. Better, however, to stick to the old familiar,
simple name that your grandfather called it. It has stood the test of
time, and old friends are always good friends.

To use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a familiar one
will answer the same purpose, is a sign of ignorance. Great scholars and
writers and polite speakers use simple words.

To go back to the number necessary for all purposes of conversation
correspondence and writing, 2,000, we find that a great many people who
pass in society as being polished, refined and educated use less, for
they know less. The greatest scholar alive hasn't more than four thousand
different words at his command, and he never has occasion to use half the
number.

In the works of Shakespeare, the most wonderful genius the world has ever
known, there is the enormous number of 15,000 different words, but almost
10,000 of them are obsolete or meaningless today.

Every person of intelligence should be able to use his mother tongue
correctly. It only requires a little pains, a little care, a little study
to enable one to do so, and the recompense is great.

Consider the contrast between the well-bred, polite man who knows how to
choose and use his words correctly and the underbred, vulgar boor, whose
language grates upon the ear and jars the sensitiveness of the finer
feelings. The blunders of the latter, his infringement of all the canons
of grammar, his absurdities and monstrosities of language, make his very
presence a pain, and one is glad to escape from his company.

The proper grammatical formation of the English language, so that one may
acquit himself as a correct conversationalist in the best society or be
able to write and express his thoughts and ideas upon paper in the right
manner, may be acquired in a few lessons.

It is the purpose of this book, as briefly and concisely as possible, to
direct the reader along a straight course, pointing out the mistakes he
must avoid and giving him such assistance as will enable him to reach the
goal of a correct knowledge of the English language. It is not a Grammar
in any sense, but a guide, a silent signal-post pointing the way in the
right direction.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN A NUTSHELL

All the words in the English language are divided into nine great
classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They are Article,
Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and
Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most important, as all the others
are more or less dependent upon it. A Noun signifies the name of any
person, place or thing, in fact, anything of which we can have either
thought or idea. There are two kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common
Nouns are names which belong in common to a race or class, as _man_,
_city_. Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as
_John_, _Philadelphia_. In the former case _man_ is a name which belongs
in common to the whole race of mankind, and _city_ is also a name which
is common to all large centres of population, but _John_ signifies a
particular individual of the race, while _Philadelphia_ denotes a
particular one from among the cities of the world.

Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is that
relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the subject
under consideration, whether by discourse or correspondence. The Persons
are _First_, _Second_ and _Third_ and they represent respectively the
speaker, the person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under
consideration.

_Number_ is the distinction of one from more than one. There are two
numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes one, the plural two or
more. The plural is generally formed from the singular by the addition of
_s_ or _es_.

_Gender_ has the same relation to nouns that sex has to individuals, but
while there are only two sexes, there are four genders, viz., masculine,
feminine, neuter and common. The masculine gender denotes all those of
the male kind, the feminine gender all those of the female kind, the
neuter gender denotes inanimate things or whatever is without life, and
common gender is applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time
being is indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things
which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly speaking,
belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech called
Personification, changed into either the masculine or feminine gender,
as, for instance, we say of the sun, _He_ is rising; of the moon, _She_
is setting.

_Case_ is the relation one noun bears to another or to a verb or to a
preposition. There are three cases, the _Nominative_, the _Possessive_
and the _Objective_. The nominative is the subject of which we are
speaking or the agent which directs the action of the verb; the
possessive case denotes possession, while the objective indicates the
person or thing which is affected by the action of the verb.

An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the latter is
used in a particular or general sense. There are but two articles, _a_ or
_an_ and _the_.

An _Adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, which shows
some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to the noun.

DEFINITIONS

A _Pronoun_ is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep us from
repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns, have case,
number, gender and person. There are three kinds of pronouns, _personal_,
_relative_ and _adjective_.

A _verb_ is a word which signifies action or the doing of something. A
verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and person, though the
latter two belong strictly to the subject of the verb.

An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective and sometimes
another adverb.

A _preposition_ serves to connect words and to show the relation between
the objects which the words express.

A _conjunction_ is a word which joins words, phrases, clauses and
sentences together.

An _interjection_ is a word which expresses surprise or some sudden
emotion of the mind.

THREE ESSENTIALS

The three essentials of the English language are: _Purity_, _Perspicuity_
and _Precision_.

By _Purity_ is signified the use of good English. It precludes the use of
all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous
expressions or any ungrammatical language whatsoever. Neither does it
sanction the use of any newly coined word until such word is adopted by
the best writers and speakers.

_Perspicuity_ demands the clearest expression of thought conveyed in
unequivocal language, so that there may be no misunderstanding whatever
of the thought or idea the speaker or writer wishes to convey. All
ambiguous words, words of double meaning and words that might possibly be
construed in a sense different from that intended, are strictly
forbidden. Perspicuity requires a  at once clear and comprehensive
and entirely free from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining
after effect.

_Precision_ requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy
and tautology, a  terse and clear and simple enough to enable the
hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the meaning of the speaker or
writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all long and involved sentences,
and, on the other, those that are too short and abrupt. Its object is to
strike the golden mean in such a way as to rivet the attention of the
hearer or reader on the words uttered or written.

CHAPTER II

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Divisions of Grammar--Definitions--Etymology.


In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is
imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered,
for no matter how much we may read of the best authors, no matter how
much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not
know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and
the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like
the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the
import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without
reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and
as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as
those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the
grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while
thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy.


DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR

There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.:

_Orthography_, _Etymology_, _Syntax_, and _Prosody_.

_Orthography_ treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words.

_Etymology_ treats of the various classes of words and the changes they
undergo.

_Syntax_ treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences.

_Prosody_ treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different
kinds of verse.

The three first mentioned concern us most.


LETTERS

A _letter_ is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound.
Letters are divided into _vowels_ and _consonants_. A vowel is a letter
which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded
without the aid of vowels. The vowels are _a_, _e_, _i_, _o_, _u_, and
sometimes _w_ and _y_ when they do not begin a word or syllable.


SYLLABLES AND WORDS

A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of
[Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every
syllable there must be at least one vowel.

A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables.

Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables, but the
best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs
of speech in properly pronouncing them.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

ARTICLE

An _Article_ is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is
used in a particular or general sense.

There are two articles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_. _A_ or _an_ is called the
indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or
thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, _a_ man means any
man whatsoever of the species or race.

_The_ is called the definite article because it points out some particular
person or thing; thus, _the_ man means some particular individual.

NOUN

A _noun_ is the name of any person, place or thing as _John_, _London_,
_book_. Nouns are proper and common.

_Proper_ nouns are names applied to _particular_ persons or places.

_Common_ nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species.

Nouns are inflected by _number_, _gender_ and _case_.

_Number_ is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it
represents one or more than one.

_Gender_ is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the
name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has
no distinction of sex.

_Case_ is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the
person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or
question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of
an action or of a relation.

Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the
distinction between _book_ which represents only one object and _leaves_
which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called _Number_;
the distinction of sex between _John_, a male, and _Sarah_, a female, and
_book_ and _leaves_, things which are inanimate and neither male nor
female, is called _Gender_; and the distinction of state between _John_,
the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, _Mary_,
the owner of the book, _leaves_ the objects torn, and _book_ the object
related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called
_Case_.

ADJECTIVE

An _adjective_ is a word which qualifies a noun, that is, shows or
points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun; as, A
_black_ dog.

Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the _positive_,
the _comparative_ and the _superlative_.

The _positive_ is the simple form of the adjective without expressing
increase or diminution of the original quality: _nice_.

The _comparative_ is that form of the adjective which expresses increase
or diminution of the quality: _nicer_.

The _superlative_ is that form which expresses the greatest increase or
diminution of the quality: _nicest_.

_or_

An adjective is in the positive form when it does not express comparison;
as, "A _rich_ man."

An adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses comparison
between two or between one and a number taken collectively, as, "John is
_richer_ than James"; "he is _richer_ than all the men in Boston."

An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison
between one and a number of individuals taken separately; as, "John is
the _richest_ man in Boston."

Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be
increased have only the positive form; as, A _circular_ road; the _chief_
end; an _extreme_ measure.

Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding _er_ to the positive
to form the comparative and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative,
or by prefixing _more_ to the positive for the comparative and _most_ to
the positive for the superlative; as, _handsome_, _handsomer_, _handsomest_
or _handsome_, _more handsome_, _most handsome_.

Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing
more and most.

Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse, worst; Good,
better, best.

PRONOUN

A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to
James and _he_ lent it to Jane to write _her_ copy with _it_." Without
the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,--"John gave John's pen
to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the
pen."

There are three kinds of pronouns--Personal, Relative and Adjective
Pronouns.

_Personal_ Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the
names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are _I_,
_Thou_, _He_, _She_, and _It_, with their plurals, _We_, _Ye_ or _You_
and _They_.

_I_ is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person
speaking.

_Thou_ is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the
person spoken to.

_He_, _She_, _It_ are the pronouns of the third person because they
represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking.

Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case. The
gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the
person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal
pronouns are thus declined:


                             First Person.
                               M. or F.

                               Sing.       Plural.
                      N.         I           We
                      P.       Mine         Ours
                      O.        Me           Us


                             Second Person.
                                M. or F.

                               Sing.       Plural.
                      N.       Thou          You
                      P.       Thine        Yours
                      O.       Thee          You


                             Third Person.
                                   M.

                               Sing.       Plural.
                      N.        He          They
                      P.        His        Theirs
                      O.        Him         Them


                             Third Person.
                                   F.

                               Sing.       Plural.
                      N.        She         They
                      P.       Hers        Theirs
                      O.        Her         Them


                             Third Person.
                                Neuter.

                               Sing.       Plural.
                      N.        It          They
                      P.        Its        Theirs
                      O.        It          Them


N. B.--In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou, Thine and Thee
are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends. The Plural form You is
used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person
and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine.

The _Relative_ Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or
phrase going before; as, "The boy _who_ told the truth;" "He has done
well, _which_ gives me great pleasure."

Here _who_ and _which_ are not only used in place of other words, but
_who_ refers immediately to boy, and _which_ to the circumstance of his
having done well.

The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the
_Antecedent_.

The Relative Pronouns are _who_, _which_, _that_ and _what_.

_Who_ is applied to persons only; as, "The man _who_ was here."

_Which_ is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, "The
horse _which_ I sold." "The hat _which_ I bought."

_That_ is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend _that_
helps." "The bird _that_ sings." "The knife _that_ cuts."

_What_ is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the
relative and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "I did what he desired,"
i. e. "I did _that which_ he desired."

Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike.

_Who_ is either masculine or feminine; _which_ and _that_ are masculine,
feminine or neuter; _what_ as a relative pronoun is always neuter.

_That_ and _what_ are not inflected.

_Who_ and _which_ are thus declined:


                  Sing. and Plural   Sing. and Plural

                  N.      Who        N.     Which
                  P.     Whose       P.     Whose
                  O.      Whom       O.     Which


_Who_, _which_ and _what_ when used to ask questions are called
_Interrogative Pronouns_.

_Adjective_ Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and
are subdivided as follows:

_Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns_ which directly point out the person or
object. They are _this_, _that_ with their plurals _these_, _those_, and
_yon_, _same_ and _selfsame_.

_Distributive Adjective Pronouns_ used distributively. They are _each_,
_every_, _either_, _neither_.

_Indefinite Adjective Pronouns_ used more or less indefinitely. They are
_any_, _all_, _few_, _some_, _several_, _one_, _other_, _another_, _none_.

_Possessive Adjective Pronouns_ denoting possession. They are _my_, _thy_,
_his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_.

N. B.--(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case
of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand _alone_ while the
former _cannot_. "Who owns that book?" "It is _mine_." You cannot say "it
is _my_,"--the word book must be repeated.)

THE VERB

A _verb_ is a word which implies action or the doing of something, or it
may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question.

Thus, the words _John the table_, contain no assertion, but when the word
_strikes_ is introduced, something is affirmed, hence the word _strikes_
is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group.

The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the _root_ of
the verb; _e. g. love_ is the root of the verb,--"To Love."

Verbs are _regular_ or _irregular_, _transitive_ or _intransitive_.

A verb is said to be _regular_ when it forms the past tense by adding
_ed_ to the present or _d_ if the verb ends in _e_. When its past tense
does not end in _ed_ it is said to be _irregular_.

A _transitive_ verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects
some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking
affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb.

An _intransitive_ verb is one in which the action remains with the subject;
as _"I walk,"_ _"I sit,"_ _"I run."_

Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively; thus, "I _walk_
the horse;" _walk_ is here transitive.

Verbs are inflected by _number_, _person_, _tense_ and _mood_.

_Number_ and _person_ as applied to the verb really belong to the
subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is
made regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference
to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing
spoken about.

TENSE

In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have _present
tense_, _past tense_ and _future tense_ with their variations to express
the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet
to happen.

MOOD

There are four simple moods,--the _Infinitive_, the _Indicative_, the
_Imperative_ and the _Subjunctive_.

The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used. Thus
if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number,
time or place, it is in the _Infinitive_ Mood; as "To run." Here we are
not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or
anything about it.

When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or
make any direct statement, it is in the _Indicative_ Mood. "The boy loves
his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you
a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer.

When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the
_Imperative_ Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny."

When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or
when some future action depends upon a contingency, it is in the
subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain."

Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the _potential_ to express
_power_, _possibility_, _liberty_, _necessity_, _will_ or _duty_. It is
formed by means of the auxiliaries _may_, _can_, _ought_ and _must_, but
in all cases it can be resolved into the indicative or subjunctive. Thus,
in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the
potential mood, but in reality the phrase _I may write_ is an indicative
one while the second clause, _if I choose_, is the expression of a
condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual
writing.

Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called
the _active_ ending in _ing_ and the past or perfect, often called the
_passive_, ending in _ed_ or _d_.

The _infinitive_ expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form,
the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful."
"An early rising man." "The newly risen sun."

The participle in _ing_ is frequently used as a substantive and
consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is
healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same.

The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative
and Past Participle; as:

                         Love   Loved   Loved

Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the verb is
said to be defective.


                Present       Past     Passive Participle

                  Can        Could         (Wanting)
                  May        Might             "
                 Shall       Should            "
                 Will        Would             "
                 Ought       Ought             "


Verbs may also be divided into _principal_ and _auxiliary_. A _principal_
verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion
or affirmation. An _auxiliary_ is a verb joined to the root or participles
of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision
than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form. Thus, the
sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I
shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs
_writing_, _finished read_; but the meaning is rendered more definite,
especially with regard to time, by the auxiliary verbs _am_, _have_,
_shall_.

There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., _Be_, _have_, _do_,
_shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, _ought_, and _must_. They are called
helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed.

TO BE

The verb _To Be_ is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has
eleven parts, viz., _am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, wert; be, being_
and _been_.

VOICE

The _active voice_ is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not
being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat _catches_ mice." "Charity
_covers_ a multitude of sins."

The _passive voice_: When the action signified by a transitive verb is
thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb
denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the
passive voice. "John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject
is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is
thrown back on him, hence the compound verb _was loved_ is said to be in
the _passive voice_. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect
participle of any _transitive_ verb with any of the eleven parts of the
verb _To Be_.

CONJUGATION

The _conjugation_ of a verb is its orderly arrangement in voices, moods,
tenses, persons and numbers.

Here is the complete conjugation of the verb "Love"--_Active Voice_.


                            PRINCIPAL PARTS

               Present       Past        Past Participle
                Love         Loved            Loved


                            Infinitive Mood

                                To Love


                            Indicative Mood
                             PRESENT TENSE

                                 Sing.      Plural
                   1st person    I love     We love
                   2nd person   You love   You love
                   3rd person   He loves   They love


                               PAST TENSE

                                 Sing.       Plural
                  1st person    I loved     We loved
                  2nd person   You loved   You loved
                  3rd person   He loved    They loved


                              FUTURE TENSE

                               Sing.           Plural
              1st person   I shall love    They will love
              2nd person   You will love   You will love
              3rd person   He will love    We shall love


                         PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

                              Sing.            Plural
             1st person    I have loved     We have loved
             2nd person   You have loved   You have loved
             3rd person    He has loved    They have loved


                           PAST PERFECT TENSE

                               Sing.           Plural
              1st person    I had loved     We had loved
              2nd person   You had loved   You had loved
              3rd person   He had loved    They had loved


                          FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

                            Sing.                 Plural
        1st person   I shall have loved    We shall have loved
        2nd person   You will have loved   You will have loved
        3rd person   He will have loved    They will have loved


                            Imperative Mood
                          (PRESENT TENSE ONLY)

                                 Sing.        Plural
                  2nd person   Love (you)   Love (you)


                            Subjunctive Mood
                             PRESENT TENSE

                                Sing.         Plural
                1st person    If I love     If we love
                2nd person   If you love   If you love
                3rd person   If he love    If they love


                               PAST TENSE

                               Sing.          Plural
               1st person    If I loved     If we loved
               2nd person   If you loved   If you loved
               3rd person   If he loved    If they loved


                         PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

                             Sing.               Plural
          1st person    If I have loved     If we have loved
          2nd person   If you have loved   If you have loved
          3rd person    If he has loved    If they have loved


                           PAST PERFECT TENSE

                             Sing.              Plural
           1st person    If I had loved     If we had loved
           2nd person   If you had loved   If you had loved
           3rd person   If he had loved    If they had loved


                              INFINITIVES

                         Present     Perfect
                         To love  To have loved


                              PARTICIPLES

                     Present   Past      Perfect
                     Loving    Loved   Having loved


                        CONJUGATION OF "To Love"
                             Passive Voice
                            Indicative Mood

                             PRESENT TENSE

                               Sing.           Plural
              1st person    I am loved      We are loved
              2nd person   You are loved   You are loved
              3rd person    He is loved    They are loved


                               PAST TENSE

                              Sing.            Plural
             1st person    I was loved      We were loved
             2nd person   You were loved   You were loved
             3rd person    He was loved    They were loved


                              FUTURE TENSE

                             Sing.               Plural
          1st person   I shall be loved    We shall be loved
          2nd person   You will be loved   You will be loved
          3rd person   He will be loved    They will be loved


                         PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

                            Sing.                 Plural
        1st person    I have been loved     We have been loved
        2nd person   You have been loved   You have been loved
        3rd person    He has been loved    They have been loved


                           PAST PERFECT TENSE

                            Sing.                Plural
         1st person    I had been loved     We had been loved
         2nd person   You had been loved   You had been loved
         3rd person   He had been loved    They had been loved


                          FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

                         Sing.                      Plural
   1st person   I shall have been loved    We shall have been loved
   2nd person   You will have been loved   You will have been loved
   3rd person   He will have been loved    They will have been loved


                            Imperative Mood
                          (PRESENT TENSE ONLY)

                               Sing.            Plural
              2nd person   Be (you) loved   Be (you) loved


                            Subjunctive Mood
                             PRESENT TENSE

                              Sing.             Plural
            1st person    If I be loved     If we be loved
            2nd person   If you be loved   If you be loved
            3rd person   If he be loved    If they be loved


                               PAST TENSE

                             Sing.               Plural
          1st person    If I were loved    If they were loved
          2nd person   If you were loved   If you were loved
          3rd person   If he were loved     If we were loved


                         PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

                          Sing.                    Plural
     1st person    If I have been loved     If we have been loved
     2nd person   If you have been loved   If you have been loved
     3rd person    If he has been loved    If they have been loved


                           PAST PERFECT TENSE

                           Sing.                   Plural
      1st person    If I had been loved     If we had been loved
      2nd person   If you had been loved   If you had been loved
      3rd person   If he had been loved    If they had been loved


                              INFINITIVES

                Present                     Perfect
              To be loved              To have been loved


                              PARTICIPLES

            Present            Past               Perfect
          Being loved       Been loved       Having been loved


(N. B.--Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun, _you_, is used
in the second person singular throughout. The old form _thou_, except in
the conjugation of the verb "To Be," may be said to be obsolete. In the
third person singular he is representative of the three personal pronouns
of the third person, _He_, _She_ and _It_.)

ADVERB

An _adverb_ is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another
adverb. Thus, in the example--"He writes _well_," the adverb shows the
manner in which the writing is performed; in the examples--"He is
remarkably diligent" and "He works very faithfully," the adverbs modify
the adjective _diligent_ and the other adverb _faithfully_ by expressing
the degree of diligence and faithfulness.

Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would otherwise
require two or more words; thus, _There_ signifies in that place;
_whence_, from what place; _usefully_, in a useful manner.

Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their terminations to
express comparison and different degrees of quality.

Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding _er_ and
_est_; as, _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_.

Adverbs which end in _ly_ are compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_;
as, _nobly_, _more nobly_, _most nobly_.

A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and
superlative; as, _well_, _better_, _best_.

PREPOSITION

A _preposition_ connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows
the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation
between hand and table.

Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed _before_ the
words whose connection or relation with other words they point out.


CONJUNCTION

A _conjunction_ joins words, clauses and sentences; as "John _and_
James." "My father and mother have come, _but_ I have not seen them."

The conjunctions in most general use are _and, also; either, or; neither,
nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because, since; therefore,
wherefore, then; if, unless, lest_.

INTERJECTION

An _interjection_ is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the
mind. Thus in the examples,--"Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?"
_ah_, expresses surprise, and _alas_, distress.

Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are
uttered as exclamations, as, _nonsense! strange! hail! away!_ etc.

We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible
stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they
are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others.
To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on
another is called _parsing_ and in order that every etymological
connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing
essentials is here given:

The signification of the noun is _limited_ to _one_, but to any _one_ of
the kind, by the _indefinite_ article, and to some _particular_ one, or
some particular _number_, by the _definite_ article.

_Nouns_, in one form, represent _one_ of a kind, and in another, _any
number_ more than one; they are the _names of males_, or _females_, or of
objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the
_subject_ of an affirmation, a command or a question,--the _owner_ or
_possessor_ of a thing,--or the _object_ of an action, or of a relation
expressed by a preposition.

_Adjectives_ express the _qualities_ which distinguish one person or
thing from another; in one form they express quality _without
comparison_; in another, they express comparison _between two_, or
between _one_ and a number taken collectively,--and in a third they
express comparison between _one_ and a _number_ of others taken
separately.

_Pronouns_ are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely
as the _substitutes_ of _names_; the pronouns of another class have a
peculiar _reference_ to some _preceding words_ in the _sentence_, of
which they are the substitutes,--and those of a third class refer
adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are
used for both the _name_ and the _substitute_; and several are frequently
employed in _asking questions_.

_Affirmations_ and _commands_ are expressed by the verb; and different
inflections of the verb express _number_, _person_, _time_ and _manner_.
With regard to _time_, an affirmation may be _present_ or _past_ or
_future_; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be _positive_ or
_conditional_, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or
not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;--the verb may express
_command_ or _entreaty_; or the sense of the verb may be expressed
_without affirming_ or _commanding_. The verb also expresses that an
action or state _is_ or _was_ going on, by a form which is also used
sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns.

_Affirmations_ are _modified_ by _adverbs_, some of which can be
inflected to express different degrees of modification.

Words are joined together by _conjunctions_; and the various _relations_
which one thing bears to another are expressed by _'prepositions. Sudden
emotions_ of the mind, and _exclamations_ are expressed by _interjections_.

Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech,
sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a _calm_," _calm_ is
a noun; in "It is a _calm_ evening," _calm_ is an adjective; and in
"_Calm_ your fears," _calm_ is a verb.

The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed
etymologically:

_"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much
difficulty."_

_I_, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine
gender, nominative case, subject of the verb _see_.

_now_, an adverb of time modifying the verb _see_.

_see_, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood, present tense,
first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I.

_the_, the definite article particularizing the noun man.

_old_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun man.

_man_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective
case governed by the transitive verb _see_.

_coming_, the present or imperfect participle of the verb "to come"
referring to the noun man.

_but_, a conjunction.

_alas_, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow.

_he_, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender,
nominative case, subject of verb has walked.

_has walked_, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect tense,
3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject _he_.

_with_, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty.

_much_, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun difficulty.

_difficulty_, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter gender,
objective case governed by the preposition _with_.

N.B.--_Much_ is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is thus compared:

              Positive       Comparative       Superlative
                much            more              most