劉龍珠律師法律評論:不能防衛過當,各州正當防衛法大比較
說到正當防衛的事例,近幾年引起廣泛爭議的莫過於特雷沃恩·馬丁(Trayvon
Martin)命案。案件發生於2012年2月26日,在佛羅里達州的桑德福,社區看守人喬治·齊默曼 (George Zimmerman) 報警稱看到一名行蹤可疑的黑人男孩(即馬丁),儘管警察說不需要跟蹤,但是齊默曼還是繼續跟蹤馬丁,隨後兩人發生了口角,馬丁用拳頭打齊默曼的頭,齊默曼出於自衛開槍擊斃了馬丁。齊默曼被以二級謀殺罪起訴,2013年7月13日,法院依陪審團決議宣布齊默曼無罪,因為其開槍行為屬正當防衛。
今年還有一則華裔女子勇敢擊退劫匪的事例。2016年9月23日凌晨,在喬治亞州格威內特郡,三名劫匪闖入一民宅,屋主一華裔女子被驚醒后持槍與劫匪展開了激烈的槍戰,並將其中一人擊斃,其餘兩名劫匪潛逃。警方稱這位女士的行為屬於正當防衛,因此並未對這名女子提出指控。
這兩個案件中,齊默曼和華裔女子都以正當防衛為由開槍捍衛自己的生命安全,雖然造成了他人的死亡,但並沒有受到法律的制裁。那麼問題就來了,是不是在美國所有的州都可以以正當防衛為由開槍給他人帶來致命傷害?如果不是,那麼那些對正當防衛權利有限制的州法是如何規定的?
2005年,佛羅里達州率先在其法律中規定了絕不退讓法 (Stand Your Ground Laws),允許個人在遭受自己認為能夠導致嚴重後果的人身攻擊之前運用致命武器來對自身或者他人進行防衛,無需退讓,且此法律適用於包括住宅和公共場所在內的任何場所。隨後,其他的州也相繼制定了類似的正當防衛法,但並不是所有州的正當防衛法都相同,總體來說,美國的正當防衛法可以分為三類:絕不退讓法、城堡法
(Castle Doctrine)、有義務退讓法 (Duty to Retreat)。以下將分別講述這三類正當防衛法以及相應的州。
(一)任何場所都沒有義務退讓——絕不退讓法 (Stand Your Ground
Laws)
絕不退讓法規定,在任何場所,受害人都有權運用致命武器來對抗來自加害人的致死或者重傷的攻擊,無需退讓。
採用絕不退讓法的州有:
1、華裔聚集州
加利福尼亞州
關於加州是採取絕不退讓法還是城堡法,在不同資源上可能有不同說法,但根據加州刑事訴訟法第505條對自衛殺人的規定——當受害人感到自己或他人的生命安全受到了即刻的威脅時,即使本可以逃跑,卻仍然可以選擇留在犯罪現場運用適當的武力來進行自衛,甚至可以在必要的時候追擊罪犯直至危險解除,受害人無需退讓——因為這條法律明確規定了受害人無需退讓,且並未作出場所限制,因此,加州採納的應當是絕不退讓法,即在任何場所都沒有義務退讓。
法律原文如下:
CALCRIM 505 –
Justifiable Homicide: Self-Defense or Defense of Another. (「[A defendant is not
required to retreat. He or she is entitled to stand his or her ground and
defend himself or herself and, if reasonably necessary, to pursue an assailant
until the danger of (death/great bodily injury/ {insert forcible and atrocious
crime}) has passed. This is so even if safety could have been achieved by
retreating.]」)
佛羅里達州
法律原文如下:
Florida
Statutes Section 776.012
Use
or threatened use of force in defense of person
(1) A
person is justified in using or threatening to use force, except deadly force,
against another when and to the extent that the person reasonably believes that
such conduct is necessary to defend himself or herself or another against the
other』s imminent use of unlawful force. A person who uses or threatens to use
force in accordance with this subsection does not have a duty to retreat before
using or threatening to use such force.
(2) A
person is justified in using or threatening to use deadly force if he or she
reasonably believes that using or threatening to use such force is necessary to
prevent imminent death or great bodily harm to himself or herself or another or
to prevent the imminent commission of a forcible felony. A person who uses or
threatens to use deadly force in accordance with this subsection does not have
a duty to retreat and has the right to stand his or her ground if the person
using or threatening to use the deadly force is not engaged in a criminal
activity and is in a place where he or she has a right to be.
賓夕法尼亞州
法律原文如下:
§ Pennsylvania Code Section 505
(2.3)
An actor who is not engaged in a criminal activity, who is not in illegal
possession of a firearm and who is attacked in any place where the actor would
have a duty to retreat under paragraph (2)(ii) has no duty to retreat and has
the right to stand his ground and use force, including deadly force, if:
(i)
the actor has a right to be in the place where he was attacked;
(ii)
the actor believes it is immediately necessary to do so to protect
himself against death, serious bodily injury, kidnapping or sexual intercourse
by force or threat; and
(iii)
the person against whom the force is used displays or otherwise uses:
(A)
a firearm or replica of a firearm as defined in 42 Pa.C.S. § 9712
(relating to sentences for offenses committed with firearms); or
(B)
any other weapon readily or apparently capable of lethal use.
(2.4)
The exception to the duty to retreat set forth under paragraph (2.3) does
not apply if the person against whom the force is used is a peace officer
acting in the performance of his official duties and the actor using force knew
or reasonably should have known that the person was a peace officer.
德克薩斯州
法律原文如下:
Texas Penal
Code § 9.31. Self-Defense
(e) A person
who has a right to be present at the location where the force is used, who has
not provoked the person against whom the force is used, and who is not engaged
in criminal activity at the time the force is used is not required to retreat
before using force as described by this section.
2、其他州
阿拉巴馬州、阿拉斯加州、亞利桑那州、喬治亞州、愛達荷州、印第安納州、堪薩斯州、肯塔基州、路易斯安那州、密歇根州、密西西比州、蒙塔納州、內華達州、新罕布希爾州、北卡羅來納州、奧克拉荷馬州、南卡羅來納州、南達科塔州、田納西州、猶他州、西弗吉尼亞州
一些州的立法並沒有規定絕不退讓法,但司法解釋中採納了與絕不退讓法相似的司法原則,在此不作列舉。
(二)特定場所才可以不退讓——城堡法
(Castle Doctrine)
城堡法,又稱個人住所防衛權 (Defense of Habitation),也同樣認可了受害人的正當防衛權利,但做出了一定限制,即受害人只有在特定場所(譬如家中或者辦公場所)才可以不退讓。
採用城堡法的州有:
1、華裔聚集州
伊利諾伊州
法律原文如下:
Illinois
Criminal Code 720 ILCS 5/7-2
Section 7-2.
Use of force in defense of dwelling
(a) A person
is justified in the use of force against another when and to the extent that he
reasonably believes that such conduct is necessary to prevent or terminate such
other』s unlawful entry into or attack upon a dwelling. However, he is justified
in the use of force which is intended or likely to cause death or great bodily
harm only if:
(1) The entry
is made or attempted in a violent, riotous, or tumultuous manner, and he
reasonably believes that such force is necessary to prevent an assault upon, or
offer of personal violence to, him or another then in the dwelling, or
(2) He
reasonably believes that such force is necessary to prevent the commission of a
felony in the dwelling.
華盛頓州
法律原文如下:
RCW 9A.16.050
Homicide—By
other person—When justifiable.
Homicide is
also justifiable when committed either:
(1) In the
lawful defense of the slayer, or his or her husband, wife, parent, child,
brother, or sister, or of any other person in his or her presence or company,
when there is reasonable ground to apprehend a design on the part of the person
slain to commit a felony or to do some great personal injury to the slayer or
to any such person, and there is imminent danger of such design being
accomplished; or
(2) In the
actual resistance of an attempt to commit a felony upon the slayer, in his or
her presence, or upon or in a dwelling, or other place of abode, in which he or
she is.
2、其他州
愛荷華州、俄勒岡州
(三)任何場所都有義務退讓 (Duty to Retreat)
在任何場合都有義務退讓也就是說,如果可以通過逃跑等方式來避免傷害或者死亡,那麼受害人就不能在正當防衛中使用致命武器。只有在別無選擇的情況下,譬如受害人被困在死角處或者行動受到了限制,並且有生命危險,受害人才可以用致命武器來自衛。
規定了在任何場所都有義務退讓的州有:
1、華裔聚集州
紐約州
法律原文如下:
New York Penal
Law § 35.15 Justification; use of physical force in defense of a person
1. A person
may, subject to the provisions of subdivision two, use physical force upon
another person when and to the extent he or she reasonably believes such to be
necessary to defend himself, herself or a third person from what he or she
reasonably believes to be the use or imminent use of unlawful physical force by
such other person, unless:
(a) The
latter's conduct was provoked by the actor with intent to cause physical injury
to another person; or
(b) The actor
was the initial aggressor; except that in such case the use of physical force
is nevertheless justifiable if the actor has withdrawn from the encounter and
effectively communicated such withdrawal to such other person but the latter
persists in continuing the incident by the use or threatened imminent use of
unlawful physical force; or
(c) The
physical force involved is the product of a combat by agreement not
specifically authorized by law.
2. A person
may not use deadly physical force upon another person under circumstances
specified in subdivision one unless:
(a) The actor
reasonably believes that such other person is using or about to use deadly
physical force. Even in such case, however, the actor may not use deadly
physical force if he or she knows that with complete personal safety, to
oneself and others he or she may avoid the necessity of so doing by retreating;
except that the actor is under no duty to retreat if he or she is:
(i) in his or
her dwelling and not the initial aggressor; or
(ii) a police
officer or peace officer or a person assisting a police officer or a peace
officer at the latter's direction, acting pursuant to section 35.30; or
(b) He or she
reasonably believes that such other person is committing or attempting to
commit a kidnapping, forcible rape, forcible criminal sexual act or robbery;
or
(c) He or she
reasonably believes that such other person is committing or attempting to
commit a burglary, and the circumstances are such that the use of deadly
physical force is authorized by subdivision three of section 35.20.
新澤西州
法律原文如下:
New Jersey
Statutes 2C-3-4(a)
The use of
force upon or toward another person is justifiable when the actor reasonably
believes that such force is immediately necessary for the purpose of protecting
himself against the unlawful force by such other person on the present
occasion.
馬里蘭州
法律原文如下:
Self-defense (MPJI-Cr 5:07)
Self-defense
is a defense, and the defendant must be found not guilty if all of the
following three factors are present:
The defendant
actually believed that <he> <she> was in immediate and imminent
danger of bodily harm.
The
defendant's belief was reasonable.
The defendant
used no more force than was reasonably necessary to defend <himself>
<herself> in light of the threatened or actual harm.
"Deadly-force
is that amount of force reasonably calculated to cause death or serious bodily
harm. If the defendant is found to have used deadly-force, it must be decided
whether the use of deadly-force was reasonable. Deadly-force is reasonable if
the defendant actually had a reasonable belief that the aggressor's force was
or would be deadly and that the defendant needed a deadly-force response."
"In
addition, before using deadly-force, the defendant is required to make all
reasonable effort to retreat. The defendant does not have to retreat if the
defendant was in <his> <her> home, retreat was unsafe, the avenue
of retreat was unknown to the defendant, the defendant was being robbed, the
defendant was lawfully arresting the victim. If the defendant was found to have
not used deadly-force, then the defendant had no duty to retreat."
馬薩諸塞州
法律原文如下:
Section 8A: Killing or injuring a person
unlawfully in a dwelling; defense
Section
8A. In the prosecution of a person who is an occupant of a dwelling charged
with killing or injuring one who was unlawfully in said dwelling, it shall be a
defense that the occupant was in his dwelling at the time of the offense and
that he acted in the reasonable belief that the person unlawfully in said
dwelling was about to inflict great bodily injury or death upon said occupant
or upon another person lawfully in said dwelling, and that said occupant used
reasonable means to defend himself or such other person lawfully in said
dwelling. There shall be no duty on said occupant to retreat from such person unlawfully
in said dwelling.
2、其他州
阿肯色州、康涅狄格州、特拉華州、夏威夷州、緬因州、密蘇里州、明尼蘇達州、內布拉斯加州、北達科塔州、俄亥俄州、羅德島、威斯康辛州、懷俄明州